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  • Question 1 - A 48-year-old woman arrives at the Emergency Department complaining of persistent, dull discomfort...

    Correct

    • A 48-year-old woman arrives at the Emergency Department complaining of persistent, dull discomfort in the upper right quadrant of her abdomen. Upon examination, an ultrasound reveals the presence of a mass in her gallbladder. Subsequent biopsy results confirm the diagnosis of adenocarcinoma, a cancerous tumour that originates from the epithelial cells of the gallbladder.

      How would you characterize these epithelial cells?

      Your Answer: Simple columnar

      Explanation:

      The lining of the gallbladder is composed of simple columnar epithelium, which is also found in other parts of the gastrointestinal tract such as the small intestine, stomach, and large intestine. Simple cuboidal epithelium is rare and is mainly found in the renal tubules and on the surface of the ovaries. Simple squamous epithelium is present in areas where rapid diffusion of small molecules is necessary, such as in alveoli and capillaries, as well as in glomeruli where ultra-filtration occurs. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is primarily found in the upper respiratory tract.

      The gallbladder is a sac made of fibromuscular tissue that can hold up to 50 ml of fluid. Its lining is made up of columnar epithelium. The gallbladder is located in close proximity to various organs, including the liver, transverse colon, and the first part of the duodenum. It is covered by peritoneum and is situated between the right lobe and quadrate lobe of the liver. The gallbladder receives its arterial supply from the cystic artery, which is a branch of the right hepatic artery. Its venous drainage is directly to the liver, and its lymphatic drainage is through Lund’s node. The gallbladder is innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The common bile duct originates from the confluence of the cystic and common hepatic ducts and is located in the hepatobiliary triangle, which is bordered by the common hepatic duct, cystic duct, and the inferior edge of the liver. The cystic artery is also found within this triangle.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 2 - A 75-year-old man is scheduled for a radical prostatectomy to treat prostate gland...

    Incorrect

    • A 75-year-old man is scheduled for a radical prostatectomy to treat prostate gland carcinoma. Which lymph nodes will the tumour primarily drain into?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Internal iliac

      Explanation:

      The prostate lymphatic drainage goes mainly to the internal iliac nodes, with the sacral nodes also involved.

      Anatomy of the Prostate Gland

      The prostate gland is a small, walnut-shaped gland located below the bladder and separated from the rectum by Denonvilliers fascia. It receives its blood supply from the internal iliac vessels, specifically the inferior vesical artery. The gland has an internal sphincter at its apex, which can be damaged during surgery and result in retrograde ejaculation.

      The prostate gland has four lobes: the posterior lobe, median lobe, and two lateral lobes. It also has an isthmus and three zones: the peripheral zone, central zone, and transition zone. The peripheral zone, which is the subcapsular portion of the posterior prostate, is where most prostate cancers occur.

      The gland is surrounded by various structures, including the pubic symphysis, prostatic venous plexus, Denonvilliers fascia, rectum, ejaculatory ducts, lateral venous plexus, and levator ani. Its lymphatic drainage is to the internal iliac nodes, and its innervation comes from the inferior hypogastric plexus.

      In summary, the prostate gland is a small but important gland in the male reproductive system. Its anatomy includes lobes, zones, and various surrounding structures, and it plays a crucial role in ejaculation and prostate health.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 3 - A 52-year-old woman visits her primary care physician after her spouse noticed a...

    Incorrect

    • A 52-year-old woman visits her primary care physician after her spouse noticed a gradual yellowing of her eyes over the past three days. The patient reports experiencing fatigue and excessive sleepiness for several years, along with occasional bouts of intense itching. She has no significant medical history. Lab tests reveal elevated levels of alkaline phosphatase, IgM antibodies, and anti-mitochondrial antibodies. What is the underlying pathology of this patient's condition?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Interlobular bile duct granulomatous destruction with dense lymphocytic infiltrate

      Explanation:

      The patient’s symptoms and laboratory findings suggest a cholestatic disease, specifically primary biliary cholangitis, which is an autoimmune condition of the biliary tract. This disease is more common in middle-aged women and can present with symptoms such as fatigue and pruritus. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis is a metabolic syndrome-related condition characterized by triglyceride accumulation and myofibroblast proliferation, while primary sclerosing cholangitis is characterized by bile duct inflammation and sclerosis. Alcoholic hepatitis is caused by long-term alcohol misuse and is characterized by macrovesicular fatty change, spotty necrosis, and fibrosis.

      Primary biliary cholangitis is a chronic liver disorder that affects middle-aged women. It is thought to be an autoimmune condition that damages interlobular bile ducts, causing progressive cholestasis and potentially leading to cirrhosis. The classic presentation is itching in a middle-aged woman. It is associated with Sjogren’s syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic sclerosis, and thyroid disease. Diagnosis involves immunology and imaging tests. Management includes ursodeoxycholic acid, cholestyramine for pruritus, and liver transplantation in severe cases. Complications include cirrhosis, osteomalacia and osteoporosis, and an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 4 - A 50-year-old man comes to the clinic with bilateral inguinal hernias. The surgical...

    Incorrect

    • A 50-year-old man comes to the clinic with bilateral inguinal hernias. The surgical team plans to perform a laparoscopic extraperitoneal repair. During the procedure, the surgeons make an infraumbilical incision and move the inferior part of the rectus abdominis muscle forward to insert a prosthetic mesh for hernia repair. What anatomical structure will be located behind the mesh?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Peritoneum

      Explanation:

      In a TEP repair of inguinal hernia, the peritoneum is the only structure located behind the mesh. The query specifically pertains to the structure situated behind the rectus abdominis muscle. As this area is situated below the arcuate line, the transversalis fascia and peritoneum are positioned behind it.

      The rectus sheath is a structure formed by the aponeuroses of the lateral abdominal wall muscles. Its composition varies depending on the anatomical level. Above the costal margin, the anterior sheath is made up of the external oblique aponeurosis, with the costal cartilages located behind it. From the costal margin to the arcuate line, the anterior rectus sheath is composed of the external oblique aponeurosis and the anterior part of the internal oblique aponeurosis. The posterior rectus sheath is formed by the posterior part of the internal oblique aponeurosis and transversus abdominis. Below the arcuate line, all the abdominal muscle aponeuroses are located in the anterior aspect of the rectus sheath, while the transversalis fascia and peritoneum are located posteriorly. The arcuate line is the point where the inferior epigastric vessels enter the rectus sheath.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 5 - What is the urinary diagnostic marker for carcinoid syndrome in elderly patients? ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the urinary diagnostic marker for carcinoid syndrome in elderly patients?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid

      Explanation:

      The measurement of 5-HIAA in urine is a crucial aspect of clinical monitoring.

      Carcinoid tumours are a type of cancer that can cause a condition called carcinoid syndrome. This syndrome typically occurs when the cancer has spread to the liver and releases serotonin into the bloodstream. In some cases, it can also occur with lung carcinoid tumours, as the mediators are not cleared by the liver. The earliest symptom of carcinoid syndrome is often flushing, but it can also cause diarrhoea, bronchospasm, hypotension, and right heart valvular stenosis (or left heart involvement in bronchial carcinoid). Additionally, other molecules such as ACTH and GHRH may be secreted, leading to conditions like Cushing’s syndrome. Pellagra, a rare condition caused by a deficiency in niacin, can also develop as the tumour diverts dietary tryptophan to serotonin.

      To investigate carcinoid syndrome, doctors may perform a urinary 5-HIAA test or a plasma chromogranin A test. Treatment for the condition typically involves somatostatin analogues like octreotide, which can help manage symptoms like diarrhoea. Cyproheptadine may also be used to alleviate diarrhoea. Overall, early detection and treatment of carcinoid tumours can help prevent the development of carcinoid syndrome and improve outcomes for patients.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 6 - A 58-year-old man comes to the emergency department complaining of severe abdominal pain...

    Incorrect

    • A 58-year-old man comes to the emergency department complaining of severe abdominal pain and profuse diarrhoea. He has been experiencing up to 10 bowel movements per day for the past 48 hours. The patient has a history of prostatitis and has recently finished a course of ciprofloxacin. He denies any recent travel but did consume a takeaway meal earlier in the week.

      The following investigations were conducted:

      Stool microscopy Gram-positive bacillus

      What is the probable organism responsible for the patient's symptoms?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Clostridium difficile

      Explanation:

      Clostridium difficile is a gram-positive bacillus that is responsible for pseudomembranous colitis, which can occur after the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. This is the correct answer for this patient’s condition. Ciprofloxacin, which the patient recently took, is a common antibiotic that can cause Clostridium difficile (C. diff) diarrhoea. Other antibiotics that can increase the risk of C. diff infection include clindamycin, co-amoxiclav, and cephalosporins.

      Campylobacter jejuni is not the correct answer. This gram-negative bacillus is the most common cause of food poisoning in the UK and is also associated with Guillain-Barre syndrome. However, the patient’s stool culture results do not support a diagnosis of Campylobacter jejuni infection.

      Escherichia coli is another possible cause of diarrhoea, but it is a gram-negative bacillus and is typically associated with travellers’ diarrhoea and food poisoning.

      Shigella dysenteriae is also a gram-negative bacillus that can cause diarrhoea and dysentery, but it is not the correct answer for this patient’s condition.

      Clostridium difficile is a type of bacteria that is commonly found in hospitals. It produces a toxin that can damage the intestines and cause a condition called pseudomembranous colitis. This bacteria usually develops when the normal gut flora is disrupted by broad-spectrum antibiotics, with second and third generation cephalosporins being the leading cause. Other risk factors include the use of proton pump inhibitors. Symptoms of C. difficile infection include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and a raised white blood cell count. The severity of the infection can be determined using the Public Health England severity scale.

      To diagnose C. difficile infection, a stool sample is tested for the presence of the C. difficile toxin. Treatment involves reviewing current antibiotic therapy and stopping antibiotics if possible. For a first episode of infection, oral vancomycin is the first-line therapy for 10 days, followed by oral fidaxomicin as second-line therapy and oral vancomycin with or without IV metronidazole as third-line therapy. Recurrent infections may require different treatment options, such as oral fidaxomicin within 12 weeks of symptom resolution or oral vancomycin or fidaxomicin after 12 weeks of symptom resolution. In life-threatening cases, oral vancomycin and IV metronidazole may be used, and surgery may be considered with specialist advice. Other therapies, such as bezlotoxumab and fecal microbiota transplant, may also be considered for preventing recurrences in certain cases.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 7 - Which one of the following statements regarding gastric acid secretions is false? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which one of the following statements regarding gastric acid secretions is false?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: The intestinal phase accounts for 60% of gastric acid produced

      Explanation:

      Understanding Gastric Secretions for Surgical Procedures

      A basic understanding of gastric secretions is crucial for surgeons, especially when dealing with patients who have undergone acid-lowering procedures or are prescribed anti-secretory drugs. Gastric acid, produced by the parietal cells in the stomach, has a pH of around 2 and is maintained by the H+/K+ ATPase pump. Sodium and chloride ions are actively secreted from the parietal cell into the canaliculus, creating a negative potential across the membrane. Carbonic anhydrase forms carbonic acid, which dissociates, and the hydrogen ions formed by dissociation leave the cell via the H+/K+ antiporter pump. This leaves hydrogen and chloride ions in the canaliculus, which mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland.

      There are three phases of gastric secretion: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase is stimulated by the smell or taste of food and causes 30% of acid production. The gastric phase, which is caused by stomach distension, low H+, or peptides, causes 60% of acid production. The intestinal phase, which is caused by high acidity, distension, or hypertonic solutions in the duodenum, inhibits gastric acid secretion via enterogastrones and neural reflexes.

      The regulation of gastric acid production involves various factors that increase or decrease production. Factors that increase production include vagal nerve stimulation, gastrin release, and histamine release. Factors that decrease production include somatostatin, cholecystokinin, and secretin. Understanding these factors and their associated pharmacology is essential for surgeons.

      In summary, a working knowledge of gastric secretions is crucial for surgical procedures, especially when dealing with patients who have undergone acid-lowering procedures or are prescribed anti-secretory drugs. Understanding the phases of gastric secretion and the regulation of gastric acid production is essential for successful surgical outcomes.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 8 - A 72-year-old man comes to the clinic with a left groin swelling and...

    Incorrect

    • A 72-year-old man comes to the clinic with a left groin swelling and reports experiencing moderate pain and discomfort. The diagnosis is an inguinal hernia, and he is scheduled for elective surgery to repair the defect. During the procedure, which nerve running through the inguinal canal is at risk of being damaged?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Ilioinguinal nerve

      Explanation:

      The inguinal canal is a crucial anatomical structure that houses the spermatic cord in males and the ilioinguinal nerve in both genders. The ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerves stem from the L1 nerve root and run through the canal. The ilioinguinal nerve enters the canal via the abdominal muscles and exits through the external inguinal ring. It is primarily a sensory nerve that provides sensation to the upper medial thigh. If the nerve is damaged during hernia repair, patients may experience numbness in this area after surgery.

      Other nerves that pass through the pelvis include the femoral nerve, which descends behind the inguinal canal, the obturator nerve, which travels through the obturator foramen, and the sciatic nerve, which exits the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen and runs posteriorly.

      The inguinal canal is located above the inguinal ligament and measures 4 cm in length. Its superficial ring is situated in front of the pubic tubercle, while the deep ring is found about 1.5-2 cm above the halfway point between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic tubercle. The canal is bounded by the external oblique aponeurosis, inguinal ligament, lacunar ligament, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, external ring, and conjoint tendon. In males, the canal contains the spermatic cord and ilioinguinal nerve, while in females, it houses the round ligament of the uterus and ilioinguinal nerve.

      The boundaries of Hesselbach’s triangle, which are frequently tested, are located in the inguinal region. Additionally, the inguinal canal is closely related to the vessels of the lower limb, which should be taken into account when repairing hernial defects in this area.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 9 - A 70-year-old man is admitted to the hospital for angiography after experiencing a...

    Incorrect

    • A 70-year-old man is admitted to the hospital for angiography after experiencing a recent NSTEMI. He has been smoking 20 cigarettes a day since he was 15 years old and complains of foot pain when walking. During his stay, he develops worsening abdominal pain and bloody stools. After receiving fluids, a CT scan reveals pneumatosis and abnormal wall enhancement, indicating ischaemic colitis. Which part of the bowel is typically affected in this condition?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Splenic flexure

      Explanation:

      Ischaemic colitis commonly affects the splenic flexure, which is a watershed area for arterial supply from the superior and inferior mesenteric artery. The descending colon is supplied by the left colic branch of the inferior mesenteric artery, while the hepatic flexure is supplied by the right colic branch of the superior mesenteric artery. The rectum receives arterial blood from the inferior mesenteric artery, middle rectal artery (from internal iliac artery), and inferior rectal artery (from the internal pudendal artery). The sigmoid colon is the second most common site for ischaemic colitis and is also a watershed area known as ‘Sudeck’s point’.

      Understanding Ischaemic Colitis

      Ischaemic colitis is a condition that occurs when there is a temporary reduction in blood flow to the large bowel. This can cause inflammation, ulcers, and bleeding. The condition is more likely to occur in areas of the bowel that are located at the borders of the territory supplied by the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries, such as the splenic flexure.

      When investigating ischaemic colitis, doctors may look for a sign called thumbprinting on an abdominal x-ray. This occurs due to mucosal edema and hemorrhage. It is important to diagnose and treat ischaemic colitis promptly to prevent complications and ensure a full recovery.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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  • Question 10 - A 36-year-old woman is found to have an aggressive caecal adenocarcinoma. Her sister...

    Incorrect

    • A 36-year-old woman is found to have an aggressive caecal adenocarcinoma. Her sister passed away from the same disease at 39 years of age. Her mother died from endometrial cancer at the age of 42. What genetic abnormality is the most probable cause of this family's cancer history?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Mutation of mismatch repair genes

      Explanation:

      Microsatellite instability of DNA repair genes causes Lynch syndrome, which is identified by the presence of aggressive colon cancer on the right side and endometrial cancer.

      Colorectal cancer can be classified into three types: sporadic, hereditary non-polyposis colorectal carcinoma (HNPCC), and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). Sporadic colon cancer is believed to be caused by a series of genetic mutations, including allelic loss of the APC gene, activation of the K-ras oncogene, and deletion of p53 and DCC tumor suppressor genes. HNPCC, which is an autosomal dominant condition, is the most common form of inherited colon cancer. It is caused by mutations in genes involved in DNA mismatch repair, leading to microsatellite instability. The most common genes affected are MSH2 and MLH1. Patients with HNPCC are also at a higher risk of other cancers, such as endometrial cancer. The Amsterdam criteria are sometimes used to aid diagnosis of HNPCC. FAP is a rare autosomal dominant condition that leads to the formation of hundreds of polyps by the age of 30-40 years. It is caused by a mutation in the APC gene. Patients with FAP are also at risk of duodenal tumors. A variant of FAP called Gardner’s syndrome can also feature osteomas of the skull and mandible, retinal pigmentation, thyroid carcinoma, and epidermoid cysts on the skin. Genetic testing can be done to diagnose HNPCC and FAP, and patients with FAP generally have a total colectomy with ileo-anal pouch formation in their twenties.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal System
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