00
Correct
00
Incorrect
00 : 00 : 00
Session Time
00 : 00
Average Question Time ( Secs)
  • Question 1 - What is the cause of a hypertensive crisis in a patient taking an...

    Incorrect

    • What is the cause of a hypertensive crisis in a patient taking an MAOI who ingests tyramine?

      Your Answer: Serotonin

      Correct Answer: Norepinephrine

      Explanation:

      Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is a condition caused by the blockade of dopamine receptors.

      MAOIs: A Guide to Mechanism of Action, Adverse Effects, and Dietary Restrictions

      First introduced in the 1950s, MAOIs were the first antidepressants introduced. However, they are not the first choice in treating mental health disorders due to several dietary restrictions and safety concerns. They are only a treatment option when all other medications are unsuccessful. MAOIs may be particularly useful in atypical depression (over eating / over sleeping, mood reactivity).

      MAOIs block the monoamine oxidase enzyme, which breaks down different types of neurotransmitters from the brain: norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, as well as tyramine. There are two types of monoamine oxidase, A and B. The MOA A are mostly distributed in the placenta, gut, and liver, but MOA B is present in the brain, liver, and platelets. Selegiline and rasagiline are irreversible and selective inhibitors of MAO type B, but safinamide is a reversible and selective MAO B inhibitor.

      The most common adverse effects of MAOIs occurring early in treatment are orthostatic hypotension, daytime sleepiness, insomnia, and nausea; later common effects include weight gain, muscle pain, myoclonus, paraesthesia, and sexual dysfunction.

      Pharmacodynamic interactions with MAOIs can cause two types of problem: serotonin syndrome (mainly due to SSRIs) and elevated blood pressure (caused by indirectly acting sympathomimetic amines releasers, like pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine). The combination of MAOIs and some TCAs appears safe. Only those TCAs with significant serotonin reuptake inhibition (clomipramine and imipramine) are likely to increase the risk of serotonin syndrome.

      Tyramine is a monoamine found in various foods, and is an indirect sympathomimetic that can cause a hypertensive reaction in patients receiving MAOI therapy. For this reason, dietary restrictions are required for patients receiving MAOIs. These restrictions include avoiding matured/aged cheese, fermented sausage, improperly stored meat, fava of broad bean pods, and certain drinks such as on-tap beer. Allowed foods include fresh cottage cheese, processed cheese slices, fresh packaged of processed meat, and other alcohol (no more than two bottled or canned beers of two standard glasses of wine, per day).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      23.7
      Seconds
  • Question 2 - Acamprosate provides a benefit to individuals with alcohol dependence by acting as an...

    Incorrect

    • Acamprosate provides a benefit to individuals with alcohol dependence by acting as an allosteric modulator at a specific receptor.

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: GABA-A

      Explanation:

      Allosteric modulators are substances that bind to a receptor and alter the way the receptor responds to stimuli.

      Mechanisms of Action of Different Drugs

      Understanding the mechanisms of action of different drugs is crucial for medical professionals. It is a common topic in exams and can earn easy marks if studied well. This article provides a list of drugs and their mechanisms of action in different categories such as antidepressants, anti dementia drugs, mood stabilizers, anxiolytic/hypnotic drugs, antipsychotics, drugs of abuse, and other drugs. For example, mirtazapine is a noradrenaline and serotonin specific antidepressant that works as a 5HT2 antagonist, 5HT3 antagonist, H1 antagonist, alpha 1 and alpha 2 antagonist, and moderate muscarinic antagonist. Similarly, donepezil is a reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an anti dementia drug, while valproate is a GABA agonist and NMDA antagonist used as a mood stabilizer. The article also explains the mechanisms of action of drugs such as ketamine, phencyclidine, buprenorphine, naloxone, atomoxetine, varenicline, disulfiram, acamprosate, and sildenafil.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 3 - What defense mechanism is being demonstrated when an athlete initially dislikes a hockey...

    Incorrect

    • What defense mechanism is being demonstrated when an athlete initially dislikes a hockey teammate and eventually begins to believe that the teammate hates them?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Projection

      Explanation:

      This scenario illustrates the concept of projection, where the athlete is projecting their own feelings of hatred onto their team mate. However, it does not involve projective identification as there is no indication of how the team mate is internalizing of reacting to the projection.

      Intermediate Mechanism: Rationalisation

      Rationalisation is a defense mechanism commonly used by individuals to create false but credible justifications for their behavior of actions. It involves the use of logical reasoning to explain away of justify unacceptable behavior of feelings. The individual may not be aware that they are using this mechanism, and it can be difficult to identify in oneself.

      Rationalisation is considered an intermediate mechanism, as it is common in healthy individuals from ages three to ninety, as well as in neurotic disorders and in mastering acute adult stress. It can be dramatically changed by conventional psychotherapeutic interpretation.

      Examples of rationalisation include a student who fails an exam and blames the teacher for not teaching the material well enough, of a person who cheats on their partner and justifies it by saying their partner was neglectful of unaffectionate. It allows the individual to avoid taking responsibility for their actions and to maintain a positive self-image.

      Overall, rationalisation can be a useful defense mechanism in certain situations, but it can also be harmful if it leads to a lack of accountability and an inability to learn from mistakes.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 4 - Which enzyme converts L-DOPA to dopamine? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which enzyme converts L-DOPA to dopamine?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: DOPA decarboxylase

      Explanation:

      Tyrosine is converted to L-DOPA by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase. L-DOPA is then converted to dopamine by the enzyme dopa decarboxylase.

      Neurotransmitters are substances used by neurons to communicate with each other and with target tissues. They are synthesized and released from nerve endings into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptor proteins in the cellular membrane of the target tissue. Neurotransmitters can be classified into different types, including small molecules (such as acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and GABA) and large molecules (such as neuropeptides). They can also be classified as excitatory or inhibitory. Receptors can be ionotropic or metabotropic, and the effects of neurotransmitters can be fast of slow. Some important neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Each neurotransmitter has a specific synthesis, breakdown, and receptor type. Understanding neurotransmitters is important for understanding the function of the nervous system and for developing treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 5 - Which of the following statements is the most effective demonstration of strong interviewing...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following statements is the most effective demonstration of strong interviewing abilities? Can you provide an example of a skillful interview technique?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: The use of non-verbal methods of communication

      Explanation:

      Effective interview techniques involve utilizing open-ended inquiries, actively listening to the interviewee, facilitating the conversation, being attentive to verbal, non-verbal, and vocal cues, seeking clarification when necessary, requesting specific examples, addressing emotional responses, reflecting on the information provided, using empathetic language, comprehending hypotheses, directly acknowledging emotions, verifying information, promoting accuracy, managing the pace of the interview, utilizing transitional statements, and summarizing key points.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 6 - A 30-year-old African American woman visits her primary care physician with complaints of...

    Incorrect

    • A 30-year-old African American woman visits her primary care physician with complaints of excessive fatigue and weakness. She is convinced that she is experiencing urinary incontinence and requests a referral to a specialist. Medical tests show no evidence of any underlying physical conditions. What is the most probable diagnosis?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Dhat syndrome

      Explanation:

      Dhat syndrome is a condition commonly observed in the Indian subcontinent, characterized by fatigue and weakness, and the belief that one is expelling semen in their urine. The condition has no identifiable physical cause.

      Hyperschemazia is a condition where individuals perceive certain body parts as being larger than they actually are.

      Koro is a belief, typically found in Southeast Asia, that the penis is shrinking and will eventually retract into the abdomen, leading to death. This belief is thought to stem from a misunderstanding of anatomy.

      Latah is a condition similar to Tourette’s syndrome, where individuals exhibit abnormal behavior in response to exaggerated startle responses. This may include screaming, cursing, dancing movements, uncontrollable laughter, and obeying commands they would not normally follow.

      Nihilistic delusion is characterized by a strong sense of self-negation, where individuals may believe that they are dead of that their internal organs are decaying.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Descriptive Psychopathology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 7 - Which condition is linked to a lack of hypocretin? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which condition is linked to a lack of hypocretin?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Narcolepsy

      Explanation:

      Hypocretin deficiency has been linked to narcolepsy, as it is a neuropeptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus that plays a crucial role in regulating sleep, arousal, appetite, and energy expenditure (also known as orexin) (Mignot, 2000).

      Sleep Disorders

      The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ISCD) categorizes sleep disorders into several main categories and subclasses. Dyssomnias are intrinsic sleep disorders that include narcolepsy, psychopsychologic insomnia, idiopathic hypersomnia, restless leg syndrome, periodic limb movement disorder, and obstructive sleep apnea. Extrinsic sleep disorders include inadequate sleep hygiene and alcohol-dependent sleep disorder. Circadian rhythm disorders consist of jet lag syndrome, shift work sleep disorder, irregular sleep-wake pattern, delayed sleep phase syndrome, and advanced sleep phase disorder. Parasomnias include arousal disorders such as sleepwalking and sleep terrors, sleep-wake transition disorders such as rhythmic movement disorder, sleep talking, and nocturnal leg cramps, and parasomnias associated with REM sleep such as nightmares and sleep paralysis. Sleep disorders associated with medical/psychiatric disorders and proposed sleep disorders are also included in the classification.

      Narcolepsy is a disorder of unknown cause that is characterized by excessive sleepiness, cataplexy, and other REM sleep phenomena such as sleep paralysis and hypnagogic hallucinations. Periodic limb movement disorder is characterized by periodic episodes of repetitive and highly stereotyped limb movements that occur during sleep. Restless legs syndrome is a disorder characterized by disagreeable leg sensations that usually occur prior to sleep onset and that cause an almost irresistible urge to move the legs. Jet lag syndrome consists of varying degrees of difficulties in initiating or maintaining sleep, excessive sleepiness, decrements in subjective daytime alertness and performance, and somatic symptoms following rapid travel across multiple time zones. Shift work sleep disorder consists of symptoms of insomnia of excessive sleepiness that occur as transient phenomena in relation to work schedules. Non 24 hour sleep wake syndrome consists of a chronic steady pattern comprising one to two hour daily delays in sleep onset and wake times in an individual living in society. Sleepwalking consists of a series of complex behaviors that are initiated during slow-wave sleep and result in walking during sleep. Sleep terrors are characterized by a sudden arousal from slow wave sleep with a piercing scream of cry, accompanied by autonomic and behavioral manifestations of intense fear. Rhythmic movement disorder comprises a group of stereotyped, repetitive movements involving large muscles, usually of the head and neck. Sleep starts are sudden, brief contractions of the legs, sometimes also involving the arms and head, that occur at sleep onset. Nocturnal leg cramps are painful sensations of muscular tightness of tension, usually in the calf but occasionally in the foot, that occur during the sleep episode. Nightmares are frightening dreams that usually awaken the sleeper from REM sleep. Sleep paralysis is a common condition characterized by transient paralysis of skeletal muscles which occurs when awakening from sleep of less often while falling asleep.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 8 - During a session of cognitive analytic therapy, a young adult client shared that...

    Incorrect

    • During a session of cognitive analytic therapy, a young adult client shared that whenever they enter a new romantic relationship, they tend to intentionally create conflict of engage in infidelity. This behavior is likely influenced by their complex and enmeshed relationship with their father, who frequently left the family home during their childhood. Additionally, the client exhibits traits of narcissism. What type of procedure is the client describing?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Snag

      Explanation:

      Traps refer to circular patterns of interaction that create ‘vicious circles’. For instance, when we feel uncertain, we may try to please others, but this can result in others taking advantage of us, which reinforces our uncertainty.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Advanced Psychological Processes And Treatments
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 9 - Which of the following characteristics is not associated with the sensorimotor stage of...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following characteristics is not associated with the sensorimotor stage of development?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Animism

      Explanation:

      The preoperational stage is characterized by the presence of animistic thinking.

      Piaget’s Stages of Development and Key Concepts

      Piaget developed four stages of development that describe how children think and acquire knowledge. The first stage is the Sensorimotor stage, which occurs from birth to 18-24 months. In this stage, infants learn through sensory observation and gain control of their motor functions through activity, exploration, and manipulation of the environment.

      The second stage is the Preoperational stage, which occurs from 2 to 7 years. During this stage, children use symbols and language more extensively, but they are unable to think logically of deductively. They also use a type of magical thinking and animistic thinking.

      The third stage is the Concrete Operational stage, which occurs from 7 to 11 years. In this stage, egocentric thought is replaced by operational thought, which involves dealing with a wide array of information outside the child. Children in this stage begin to use limited logical thought and can serialise, order, and group things into classes on the basis of common characteristics.

      The fourth and final stage is the Formal Operations stage, which occurs from 11 through the end of adolescence. This stage is characterized by the ability to think abstractly, to reason deductively, to define concepts, and also by the emergence of skills for dealing with permutations and combinations.

      Piaget also developed key concepts, including schema, assimilation, and accommodation. A schema is a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. Assimilation is the process of taking new information into an existing schema, while accommodation involves altering a schema in view of additional information.

      Overall, Piaget’s stages of development and key concepts provide a framework for understanding how children learn and acquire knowledge.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychological Development
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 10 - What factors during pregnancy can cause fingernail hypoplasia? ...

    Incorrect

    • What factors during pregnancy can cause fingernail hypoplasia?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Carbamazepine

      Explanation:

      Teratogens and Their Associated Defects

      Valproic acid is a teratogen that has been linked to various birth defects, including neural tube defects, hypospadias, cleft lip/palate, cardiovascular abnormalities, developmental delay, endocrinological disorders, limb defects, and autism (Alsdorf, 2005). Lithium has been associated with cardiac anomalies, specifically Ebstein’s anomaly. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to cleft lip/palate and fetal alcohol syndrome. Phenytoin has been linked to fingernail hypoplasia, craniofacial defects, limb defects, cerebrovascular defects, and mental retardation. Similarly, carbamazepine has been associated with fingernail hypoplasia and craniofacial defects. Diazepam has been linked to craniofacial defects, specifically cleft lip/palate (Palmieri, 2008). The evidence for steroids causing craniofacial defects is not convincing, according to the British National Formulary (BNF). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been associated with congenital heart defects and persistent pulmonary hypertension (BNF). It is important for pregnant women to avoid exposure to these teratogens to reduce the risk of birth defects in their babies.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 11 - Which of the following is not a licensed treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder?...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is not a licensed treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Citalopram

      Explanation:

      Antidepressants (Licensed Indications)

      The following table outlines the specific licensed indications for antidepressants in adults, as per the Maudsley Guidelines and the British National Formulary. It is important to note that all antidepressants are indicated for depression.

      – Nocturnal enuresis in children: Amitriptyline, Imipramine, Nortriptyline
      – Phobic and obsessional states: Clomipramine
      – Adjunctive treatment of cataplexy associated with narcolepsy: Clomipramine
      – Panic disorder and agoraphobia: Citalopram, Escitalopram, Sertraline, Paroxetine, Venlafaxine
      – Social anxiety/phobia: Escitalopram, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Moclobemide, Venlafaxine
      – Generalised anxiety disorder: Escitalopram, Paroxetine, Duloxetine, Venlafaxine
      – OCD: Escitalopram, Fluoxetine, Fluvoxamine, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Clomipramine
      – Bulimia nervosa: Fluoxetine
      – PTSD: Paroxetine, Sertraline

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 12 - Which of the following is excluded from the frontal assessment battery? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is excluded from the frontal assessment battery?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Asking the patient to draw a clock

      Explanation:

      The Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) is a quick and easy bedside test used to detect the dysexecutive syndrome. It consists of six subsets, including conceptualization, mental flexibility, motor programming, conflicting instructions, go-no go (inhibitory control), and prehension behavior. The test assesses a patient’s ability to perform tasks such as abstract reasoning, verbal fluency, and motor skills. The FAB can be completed in just a few minutes and is a useful tool for clinicians in evaluating patients with suspected executive dysfunction.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 13 - What is the inability of a patient with astereognosia? ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the inability of a patient with astereognosia?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Recognise objects by touch

      Explanation:

      Agnosia is a condition where a person loses the ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, of smells, despite having no significant memory loss of defective senses. There are different types of agnosia, such as prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces), anosognosia (inability to recognize one’s own condition/illness), autotopagnosia (inability to orient parts of the body), phonagnosia (inability to recognize familiar voices), simultanagnosia (inability to appreciate two objects in the visual field at the same time), and astereoagnosia (inability to recognize objects by touch).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 14 - In what area of the brain does the Anton-Babinski syndrome cause damage? ...

    Incorrect

    • In what area of the brain does the Anton-Babinski syndrome cause damage?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Occipital lobe

      Explanation:

      Anton’s syndrome, also known as Anton-Babinski syndrome, is a condition that results from damage to the occipital lobe. People with this syndrome are cortically blind, but they are not aware of it and deny having any problem, a condition known as anosognosia. They may start falling over furniture as they cannot see, but they believe they can still see and describe their surroundings in detail, even though their descriptions are incorrect (confabulation). This syndrome is characterized by a lack of awareness of visual impairment, which can lead to significant difficulties in daily life.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 15 - Which of the following is not considered a stage of grief in Kubler-Ross'...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is not considered a stage of grief in Kubler-Ross' classification system?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Rejection

      Explanation:

      Understanding Grief: Normal and Abnormal Phases

      Grief is a natural response to loss, and it is a complex process that can take different forms and durations. John Bowlby and Kubler-Ross have proposed models to describe the typical phases of grief, which can vary in intensity and duration for each individual. Bowlby’s model includes shock-numbness, yearning-searching, disorganization-despair, and reorganization, while Kubler-Ross’s model includes denial-dissociation-isolation, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

      However, some people may experience abnormal grief, which can be categorized as inhibited, delayed, of chronic/prolonged. Inhibited grief refers to the absence of expected grief symptoms at any stage, while delayed grief involves avoiding painful symptoms within two weeks of loss. Chronic/prolonged grief is characterized by continued significant grief-related symptoms six months after loss.

      It is important to distinguish between normal grief and major depression, as a high proportion of people may meet the criteria for major depression in the first year following bereavement. Some features that can help differentiate between the two include generalized guilt, thoughts of death unrelated to the deceased, feelings of worthlessness, psychomotor retardation, and prolonged functional impairment.

      Overall, understanding the phases and types of grief can help individuals and their loved ones navigate the grieving process and seek appropriate support and resources.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 16 - Which type of stigma is referred to as discrimination? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which type of stigma is referred to as discrimination?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Enacted stigma

      Explanation:

      Stigma is a term used to describe the negative attitudes and beliefs that people hold towards individuals who are different from them. There are several types of stigma, including discredited and discreditable stigma, felt stigma, enacted stigma, and courtesy stigma. Discredited stigma refers to visible stigmas such as race, gender, of physical disability, while discreditable stigma refers to concealable stigmas such as mental illness of HIV infection. Felt stigma is the shame and fear of discrimination that prevents people from seeking help, while enacted stigma is the experience of unfair treatment by others. Finally, courtesy stigma refers to the stigma that attaches to those who are associated with a stigmatized person.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 17 - What category of adverse drug reaction does insomnia and anxiety resulting from benzodiazepine...

    Incorrect

    • What category of adverse drug reaction does insomnia and anxiety resulting from benzodiazepine withdrawal fall under?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Type E

      Explanation:

      The MHRA categorizes adverse drug reactions into five types. Type A reactions occur when a drug’s normal pharmacological actions are exaggerated at the usual therapeutic dose, and are typically dose-dependent. Type B reactions are unexpected responses that do not align with the drug’s known pharmacological actions. Type C reactions persist for an extended period of time, while Type D reactions become apparent after some time has passed since the medication was used. Finally, Type E reactions are linked to the discontinuation of a medication.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 18 - What is the reason behind Mirtazapine ability to improve sleep? ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the reason behind Mirtazapine ability to improve sleep?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: H1 antagonism

      Explanation:

      Mirtazapine works by blocking the activity of 5HT2 and 5HT3, H1, and alpha 1 receptors. These actions promote sleep, except for the alpha 2 receptor, which normally inhibits the release of norepinephrine. As the dosage of mirtazapine increases, its ability to enhance sleep may decrease due to its antagonism of the alpha 2 receptor. Therefore, doses of 30mg of less are typically used to treat insomnia. This information is from the book Foundations of Psychiatric Sleep Medicine, published by Cambridge University Press in 2011, on page 224.

      Mechanisms of Action of Different Drugs

      Understanding the mechanisms of action of different drugs is crucial for medical professionals. It is a common topic in exams and can earn easy marks if studied well. This article provides a list of drugs and their mechanisms of action in different categories such as antidepressants, anti dementia drugs, mood stabilizers, anxiolytic/hypnotic drugs, antipsychotics, drugs of abuse, and other drugs. For example, mirtazapine is a noradrenaline and serotonin specific antidepressant that works as a 5HT2 antagonist, 5HT3 antagonist, H1 antagonist, alpha 1 and alpha 2 antagonist, and moderate muscarinic antagonist. Similarly, donepezil is a reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an anti dementia drug, while valproate is a GABA agonist and NMDA antagonist used as a mood stabilizer. The article also explains the mechanisms of action of drugs such as ketamine, phencyclidine, buprenorphine, naloxone, atomoxetine, varenicline, disulfiram, acamprosate, and sildenafil.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 19 - Whenever a certain student receives a good grade from a teacher, they believe...

    Incorrect

    • Whenever a certain student receives a good grade from a teacher, they believe it is because they did well and met high standards. But when the same student receives a bad grade, they assume the teacher must be in a bad mood of doesn't like them. What is this reaction an example of?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Self-serving bias

      Explanation:

      A fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining other people’s behavior. The correct term for making false assumptions about other people’s behavior is actually the fundamental attribution error.

      Attribution Theory: Understanding How We Explain Events

      Attribution theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals explain events in their environment. It examines how people use information to arrive at causal explanations for events and what factors influence their judgments. Fritz Heider first proposed a theory of attribution in 1958.

      However, attribution is prone to biases such as the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE), which overemphasizes dispositional factors over situational causes when making attributions about others’ behavior. The Actor-Observer Bias, on the other hand, undervalues dispositional explanations and overvalued situational explanations of our own behavior. Correspondence bias is the tendency to draw inferences about a person’s unique and enduring dispositions from behaviors that can be entirely explained by the situations in which they occur. Self-serving bias refers to people’s tendency to attribute their successes to internal factors but attribute their failures to external factors. Hostile Attribution Bias (HAB) is an interpretive bias where individuals interpret ambiguous behavior as hostile, leading to aggression. Finally, the False Consensus Effect is the tendency for people to project their way of thinking onto others, assuming that everyone else thinks the same way they do.

      Overall, attribution theory helps us understand how people make sense of events in their environment, but it is important to be aware of the biases that can influence our judgments.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 20 - Which symptom is atypical for individuals with Kluver-Bucy syndrome? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which symptom is atypical for individuals with Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Prosopagnosia

      Explanation:

      Kluver-Bucy syndrome is a neurological disorder that results from dysfunction in both the right and left medial temporal lobes of the brain. This condition is characterized by a range of symptoms, including docility, altered dietary habits, hyperorality, and changes in sexual behavior. Additionally, individuals with Kluver-Bucy syndrome may experience visual agnosia, which is a condition that impairs their ability to recognize and interpret visual stimuli.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 21 - You are conducting an annual medication review for a female patient in an...

    Incorrect

    • You are conducting an annual medication review for a female patient in an outpatient clinic. While reviewing her ECG, you notice that her QTc value is 660 ms, which puts her at high risk for arrhythmia. You decide to seek cardiology advice and during the handover, the cardiologist asks for your opinion on which medication may be responsible for the QTc prolongation. Which medication do you think is likely to be the culprit in this case?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Clarithromycin

      Explanation:

      While antipsychotics, tricyclic antidepressants, and citalopram are known to cause QTc prolongation and require ECG monitoring, they are not the only drugs that can cause this condition. However, in psychiatric practice, they are the most commonly prescribed drugs associated with QTc prolongation. It is important to note that clarithromycin is a high-risk drug for QTc prolongation, unlike the other drugs listed, which are considered low risk.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 22 - A concerned parent of a 25-year-old daughter with schizophrenia wants to know what...

    Incorrect

    • A concerned parent of a 25-year-old daughter with schizophrenia wants to know what the biggest challenge is for individuals living with this condition and how it affects their overall quality of life.

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: People with schizophrenia live with the stigma of the illness and are often seen as dangerous by society

      Explanation:

      Norman Sartorius highlights the iatrogenic stigma of mental illness as the main obstacle to a better life for those suffering from mental disorders. NICE guidelines on schizophrenia also acknowledge the stigma associated with the condition, which is often seen as dangerous and best dealt with away from society. However, research has shown that the fear of violence arising from people with schizophrenia is misplaced. Other factors that may contribute to feelings of exclusion and isolation include compulsory treatment under mental health legislation, medication side effects, and less careful use of diagnostic labels.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Stigma And Culture
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 23 - What is the definition of sleep latency? ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the definition of sleep latency?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: The time taken to fall asleep after going to bed

      Explanation:

      Sleep Stages

      Sleep is divided into two distinct states called rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM). NREM is subdivided into four stages.

      Sleep stage
      Approx % of time spent in stage
      EEG findings
      Comment

      I
      5%
      Theta waves (4-7 Hz)
      The dozing off stage. Characterized by hypnic jerks: spontaneous myoclonic contractions associated with a sensation of twitching of falling.

      II
      45%
      Theta waves, K complexes and sleep spindles (short bursts of 12-14 Hz activity)
      Body enters a more subdued state including a drop in temperature, relaxed muscles, and slowed breathing and heart rate. At the same time, brain waves show a new pattern and eye movement stops.

      III
      15%
      Delta waves (0-4 Hz)
      Deepest stage of sleep (high waking threshold). The length of stage 3 decreases over the course of the night.

      IV
      15%
      Mixed, predominantly beta
      High dream activity.

      The percentage of REM sleep decreases with age.

      It takes the average person 15-20 minutes to fall asleep, this is called sleep latency (characterised by the onset of stage I sleep). Once asleep one descends through stages I-II and then III-IV (deep stages). After about 90 minutes of sleep one enters REM. The rest of the sleep comprises of cycles through the stages. As the sleep progresses the periods of REM become greater and the periods of NREM become less. During an average night’s sleep one spends 25% of the sleep in REM and 75% in NREM.

      REM sleep has certain characteristics that separate it from NREM

      Characteristics of REM sleep

      – Autonomic instability (variability in heart rate, respiratory rate, and BP)
      – Loss of muscle tone
      – Dreaming
      – Rapid eye movements
      – Penile erection

      Deafness:

      (No information provided on deafness in relation to sleep stages)

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 24 - What defense mechanism is being demonstrated by a woman who is usually introverted...

    Incorrect

    • What defense mechanism is being demonstrated by a woman who is usually introverted and avoids social situations, but now insists on going out with friends every weekend, drinking excessively, and participating in karaoke?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Reaction formation

      Explanation:

      In this situation, it is more appropriate to use the defense mechanism of reaction formation instead of sublimation. Sublimation involves redirecting an impulse into a positive outlet, but since the individual in question has a negative behavior of heavy drinking, it would not be effective. On the other hand, reaction formation involves expressing the opposite of the true impulse, which would be more suitable. It is important to note that sublimation and reaction formation do have some similarities, with sublimation being a more advanced version of reaction formation.

      Intermediate Mechanism: Rationalisation

      Rationalisation is a defense mechanism commonly used by individuals to create false but credible justifications for their behavior of actions. It involves the use of logical reasoning to explain away of justify unacceptable behavior of feelings. The individual may not be aware that they are using this mechanism, and it can be difficult to identify in oneself.

      Rationalisation is considered an intermediate mechanism, as it is common in healthy individuals from ages three to ninety, as well as in neurotic disorders and in mastering acute adult stress. It can be dramatically changed by conventional psychotherapeutic interpretation.

      Examples of rationalisation include a student who fails an exam and blames the teacher for not teaching the material well enough, of a person who cheats on their partner and justifies it by saying their partner was neglectful of unaffectionate. It allows the individual to avoid taking responsibility for their actions and to maintain a positive self-image.

      Overall, rationalisation can be a useful defense mechanism in certain situations, but it can also be harmful if it leads to a lack of accountability and an inability to learn from mistakes.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 25 - What factor played a significant role in the shift of psychiatric influence from...

    Incorrect

    • What factor played a significant role in the shift of psychiatric influence from Europe to the United States during the 20th century?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Second World War

      Explanation:

      The ascent of the National Socialist Party during the 1930s had a negative effect on psychiatry in Germany, which was previously a leading force in European psychiatry. As a result of the Second World War, numerous skilled scientists and psychiatrists fled Germany and sought refuge in the United States. Their contributions were instrumental in establishing the US as the dominant force in both academic and clinical psychiatry.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • History Of Psychiatry
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 26 - A 32-year-old teacher has been referred by the doctor with persistent feelings of...

    Incorrect

    • A 32-year-old teacher has been referred by the doctor with persistent feelings of sadness. She now describes experiencing a sense of disconnection and feels like she is watching herself in a surreal state. What is the most probable diagnosis?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Depersonalisation

      Explanation:

      Depersonalisation is classified as a neurotic disorder in the ICD-10 and is characterized by feelings of detachment of distance from one’s own experiences and emotions. Derealisation, on the other hand, is a perceptual phenomenon in which the external world seems unreal. Dissociative fugue is a dissociative state that can lead to wandering and getting lost in another location. Hypochondriasis is a condition in which an individual excessively worries about having a serious illness, despite no evidence of a medical condition. Finally, somatisation is a chronic condition in which multiple physical complaints are present across various systems, but no physical cause can be identified, leading to frequent medical visits.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Descriptive Psychopathology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 27 - Which type of white matter tract is categorized as a commissural tract? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which type of white matter tract is categorized as a commissural tract?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Corpus callosum

      Explanation:

      White matter is the cabling that links different parts of the CNS together. There are three types of white matter cables: projection tracts, commissural tracts, and association tracts. Projection tracts connect higher centers of the brain with lower centers, commissural tracts connect the two hemispheres together, and association tracts connect regions of the same hemisphere. Some common tracts include the corticospinal tract, which connects the motor cortex to the brainstem and spinal cord, and the corpus callosum, which is the largest white matter fiber bundle connecting corresponding areas of cortex between the hemispheres. Other tracts include the cingulum, superior and inferior occipitofrontal fasciculi, and the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 28 - A senior citizen is experiencing sedation during lurasidone dose titration. What is the...

    Incorrect

    • A senior citizen is experiencing sedation during lurasidone dose titration. What is the medication's minimum effective dose?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 37 mg

      Explanation:

      Lurasidone may cause akathisia and sedation as common side effects, which can vary based on the dosage. Its metabolic profile is neutral. However, doses lower than 37 mg are unlikely to produce desired results.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 29 - A teenager with schizophrenia is admitted to the ward. They are assessed and...

    Incorrect

    • A teenager with schizophrenia is admitted to the ward. They are assessed and appear to have both positive and negative symptoms. Which of the following assessment tools would be most useful in monitoring their psychotic symptoms?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: PANSS

      Explanation:

      Schizophrenia Assessment Tools: Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) and Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (PANSS)

      As a language model AI, I am familiar with the rating scales used to assess individuals with schizophrenia. Two of the most commonly used scales are the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) and the Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (PANSS). While there are many other scales available, these two are particularly important for exam purposes. The BPRS is a tool used to assess the severity of symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia, including positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, as well as negative symptoms such as apathy and social withdrawal. The PANSS, on the other hand, is a more comprehensive tool that assesses both positive and negative symptoms, as well as general psychopathology. Both scales are useful in helping clinicians to evaluate the severity of symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia and to monitor their progress over time.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 30 - Which combination of organs is primarily responsible for the first pass effect? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which combination of organs is primarily responsible for the first pass effect?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Liver and bowel

      Explanation:

      The First Pass Effect in Psychiatric Drugs

      The first-pass effect is a process in drug metabolism that significantly reduces the concentration of a drug before it reaches the systemic circulation. This phenomenon is related to the liver and gut wall, which absorb and metabolize the drug before it can enter the bloodstream. Psychiatric drugs are not exempt from this effect, and some undergo a significant reduction in concentration before reaching their target site. Examples of psychiatric drugs that undergo a significant first-pass effect include imipramine, fluphenazine, morphine, diazepam, and buprenorphine. On the other hand, some drugs undergo little to no first-pass effect, such as lithium and pregabalin.

      Orally administered drugs are the most affected by the first-pass effect. However, there are other routes of administration that can avoid of partly avoid this effect. These include sublingual, rectal (partly avoids first pass), intravenous, intramuscular, transdermal, and inhalation. Understanding the first-pass effect is crucial in drug development and administration, especially in psychiatric drugs, where the concentration of the drug can significantly affect its efficacy and safety.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 31 - Which of the following is classified as a tertiary amine? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is classified as a tertiary amine?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Imipramine

      Explanation:

      Tricyclic Antidepressants: Uses, Types, and Side-Effects

      Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are a type of medication used for depression and neuropathic pain. However, due to their side-effects and toxicity in overdose, they are not commonly used for depression anymore. TCAs can be divided into two types: first generation (tertiary amines) and second generation (secondary amines). The secondary amines have a lower side effect profile and act primarily on noradrenaline, while the tertiary amines boost serotonin and noradrenaline.

      Some examples of secondary amines include desipramine, nortriptyline, protriptyline, and amoxapine. Examples of tertiary amines include amitriptyline, lofepramine, imipramine, clomipramine, dosulepin (dothiepin), doxepin, trimipramine, and butriptyline. Common side-effects of TCAs include drowsiness, dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and urinary retention.

      Low-dose amitriptyline is commonly used for neuropathic pain and prophylaxis of headache. Lofepramine has a lower incidence of toxicity in overdose. However, amitriptyline and dosulepin (dothiepin) are considered the most dangerous in overdose. It is important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking any medication and to follow their instructions carefully.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 32 - A woman is arrested by the police for strangling her husband. She believes...

    Incorrect

    • A woman is arrested by the police for strangling her husband. She believes he has been replaced by an impostor. Select the appropriate delusional syndrome:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Capgras

      Explanation:

      Types of Delusions

      Delusions come in many different forms. It is important to familiarize oneself with these types as they may be tested in an exam. Some of the most common types of delusions include:

      – Folie a deux: a shared delusion between two or more people
      – Grandiose: belief that one has special powers, beliefs, of purpose
      – Hypochondriacal: belief that something is physically wrong with the patient
      – Ekbom’s syndrome: belief that one has been infested with insects
      – Othello syndrome: belief that a sexual partner is cheating on them
      – Capgras delusion: belief that a person close to them has been replaced by a double
      – Fregoli delusion: patient identifies a familiar person (usually suspected to be a persecutor) in other people they meet
      – Syndrome of subjective doubles: belief that doubles of him/her exist
      – Lycanthropy: belief that one has been transformed into an animal
      – De Clérambault’s syndrome: false belief that a person is in love with them
      – Cotard’s syndrome/nihilistic delusions: belief that they are dead of do not exist
      – Referential: belief that others/TV/radio are speaking directly to of about the patient
      – Delusional perception: belief that a normal percept (product of perception) has a special meaning
      – Pseudocyesis: a condition whereby a woman believes herself to be pregnant when she is not. Objective signs accompany the belief such as abdominal enlargement, menstrual disturbance, apparent foetal movements, nausea, breast changes, and labour pains.

      Remembering these types of delusions can be helpful in understanding and diagnosing patients with delusional disorders.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 33 - What is a requirement for managing personal information under the provisions of the...

    Incorrect

    • What is a requirement for managing personal information under the provisions of the Data Protection Act?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Data must be kept for only as long as they are needed

      Explanation:

      The Data Protection Act mandates that organisations should not retain personal of sensitive information beyond the purpose for which it was collected. Furthermore, data must only be used for the intended purpose and cannot be transferred outside the EU. While encryption of sensitive information is not mandatory, appropriate technical and organisational measures must be implemented to prevent unauthorised of unlawful access to personal data.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Basic Ethics And Philosophy Of Psychiatry
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 34 - What is the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's dementia for a patient with a...

    Incorrect

    • What is the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's dementia for a patient with a homozygous APOE 4 genotype?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 10

      Explanation:

      Individuals who are homozygous for APOE 4 have a risk of 10-30 times higher than those who do not have this genetic variant, while those who are heterozygous have a risk that is 3 times higher.

      Genetics plays a role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease, with different genes being associated with early onset and late onset cases. Early onset Alzheimer’s, which is rare, is linked to three genes: amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin one (PSEN-1), and presenilin two (PSEN-2). The APP gene, located on chromosome 21, produces a protein that is a precursor to amyloid. The presenilins are enzymes that cleave APP to produce amyloid beta fragments, and alterations in the ratios of these fragments can lead to plaque formation. Late onset Alzheimer’s is associated with the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene on chromosome 19, with the E4 variant increasing the risk of developing the disease. People with Down’s syndrome are also at high risk of developing Alzheimer’s due to inheriting an extra copy of the APP gene.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 35 - Which allele is believed to have a protective effect against Alzheimer's disease? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which allele is believed to have a protective effect against Alzheimer's disease?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: APOE2

      Explanation:

      APOE3 is considered to have a neutral effect on the risk of developing certain health conditions.

      Genetics plays a role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease, with different genes being associated with early onset and late onset cases. Early onset Alzheimer’s, which is rare, is linked to three genes: amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin one (PSEN-1), and presenilin two (PSEN-2). The APP gene, located on chromosome 21, produces a protein that is a precursor to amyloid. The presenilins are enzymes that cleave APP to produce amyloid beta fragments, and alterations in the ratios of these fragments can lead to plaque formation. Late onset Alzheimer’s is associated with the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene on chromosome 19, with the E4 variant increasing the risk of developing the disease. People with Down’s syndrome are also at high risk of developing Alzheimer’s due to inheriting an extra copy of the APP gene.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 36 - What factors contribute to the lack of phobias towards cars in humans, despite...

    Incorrect

    • What factors contribute to the lack of phobias towards cars in humans, despite their potential danger?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Stimulus preparedness

      Explanation:

      Classical Conditioning: A Learning Theory by Ivan Pavlov

      Classical conditioning is a learning theory developed by Ivan Pavlov. It suggests that events that occur together are associated and acquire a similar meaning. Unlike operant conditioning, which focuses on responses to behavior, classical conditioning looks at responses to stimuli. In classical conditioning, animals behave as if they have learned to associate a stimulus with a significant event. Pavlov demonstrated that innate responses, such as a dog salivating when it sees food, can be associated with a neutral stimulus, such as ringing a bell, so that ringing the bell can cause salivation even in the absence of food.

      Important terms used in classical conditioning include stimulus generalization and discrimination, higher order conditioning, spontaneous recovery, and aversive conditioning. Extinction is the laboratory analogue of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders, while Counterconditioning involves pairing a feared conditioned stimulus with a positive outcome. Incubation occurs in fear responses, and reciprocal inhibition is a technique that aims to replace an undesired response with a desired one by counterconditioning. Some stimuli are more prone to conditioning than others, which is referred to as stimulus/biological preparedness.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 37 - Which statement about heritability is incorrect? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which statement about heritability is incorrect?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Heritability of 0.70 means that in an individual, 70% of that condition is due to genes and 30% is due to environment

      Explanation:

      Heritability applies to populations, not individuals, but it does provide information about the extent to which genetic factors contribute to variation in a trait within a population.

      Heritability: Understanding the Concept

      Heritability is a concept that is often misunderstood. It is not a measure of the extent to which genes cause a condition in an individual. Rather, it is the proportion of phenotypic variance attributable to genetic variance. In other words, it tells us how much of the variation in a condition seen in a population is due to genetic factors. Heritability is calculated using statistical techniques and can range from 0.0 to 1.0. For human behavior, most estimates of heritability fall in the moderate range of .30 to .60.

      The quantity (1.0 – heritability) gives the environment ability of the trait. This is the proportion of phenotypic variance attributable to environmental variance. The following table provides estimates of heritability for major conditions:

      Condition Heritability estimate (approx)
      ADHD 85%
      Autism 70%
      Schizophrenia 55%
      Bipolar 55%
      Anorexia 35%
      Alcohol dependence 35%
      Major depression 30%
      OCD 25%

      It is important to note that heritability tells us nothing about individuals. It is a population-level measure that helps us understand the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to a particular condition.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 38 - Which sensory component is correctly matched with its corresponding cranial nerve reflex? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which sensory component is correctly matched with its corresponding cranial nerve reflex?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Gag reflex - IX cranial nerve

      Explanation:

      The question specifically requests the sensory aspect.

      Cranial Nerve Reflexes

      When it comes to questions on cranial nerve reflexes, it is important to match the reflex to the nerves involved. Here are some examples:

      – Pupillary light reflex: involves the optic nerve (sensory) and oculomotor nerve (motor).
      – Accommodation reflex: involves the optic nerve (sensory) and oculomotor nerve (motor).
      – Jaw jerk: involves the trigeminal nerve (sensory and motor).
      – Corneal reflex: involves the trigeminal nerve (sensory) and facial nerve (motor).
      – Vestibulo-ocular reflex: involves the vestibulocochlear nerve (sensory) and oculomotor, trochlear, and abducent nerves (motor).

      Another example of a cranial nerve reflex is the gag reflex, which involves the glossopharyngeal nerve (sensory) and the vagus nerve (motor). This reflex is important for protecting the airway from foreign objects of substances that may trigger a gag reflex. It is also used as a diagnostic tool to assess the function of these nerves.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 39 - What is the term used to describe a segment of DNA that does...

    Incorrect

    • What is the term used to describe a segment of DNA that does not code for proteins and is not translated?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Intron

      Explanation:

      Splicing of mRNA

      After the transcription of DNA into mRNA, the mRNA undergoes a crucial process known as splicing. This process involves the removal of certain portions of the mRNA, called introns, leaving behind the remaining portions known as exons. The exons are then translated into proteins. The resulting spliced form of RNA is referred to as mature mRNA. This process of splicing is essential for the proper functioning of genes and the production of functional proteins.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 40 - Can you identify the brain structure that is not found in both cerebral...

    Incorrect

    • Can you identify the brain structure that is not found in both cerebral hemispheres?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Pineal gland

      Explanation:

      Neuroanatomical Structures

      The pineal gland is a unique structure in the brain that is not present bilaterally. It is a small endocrine gland responsible for producing melatonin, a hormone derived from serotonin. Along with the pituitary gland and circumventricular organs, the pineal gland is one of the few unpaired structures in the brain.

      In contrast, the caudate nucleus is a paired structure located within the basal ganglia. It is present bilaterally and plays a crucial role in motor control and learning.

      The midbrain contains the Mammillary body, which is also a paired structure involved in long-term memory formation. These structures work together to help us remember and recall past experiences.

      Finally, the supraoptic nucleus is duplicated in each cerebral hemisphere. This structure is involved in regulating water balance and plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 41 - Which of the options below does not require the utilization of a conditioned...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the options below does not require the utilization of a conditioned stimulus?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Temporal conditioning

      Explanation:

      Classical Conditioning: A Learning Theory by Ivan Pavlov

      Classical conditioning is a learning theory developed by Ivan Pavlov. It suggests that events that occur together are associated and acquire a similar meaning. Unlike operant conditioning, which focuses on responses to behavior, classical conditioning looks at responses to stimuli. In classical conditioning, animals behave as if they have learned to associate a stimulus with a significant event. Pavlov demonstrated that innate responses, such as a dog salivating when it sees food, can be associated with a neutral stimulus, such as ringing a bell, so that ringing the bell can cause salivation even in the absence of food.

      Important terms used in classical conditioning include stimulus generalization and discrimination, higher order conditioning, spontaneous recovery, and aversive conditioning. Extinction is the laboratory analogue of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders, while Counterconditioning involves pairing a feared conditioned stimulus with a positive outcome. Incubation occurs in fear responses, and reciprocal inhibition is a technique that aims to replace an undesired response with a desired one by counterconditioning. Some stimuli are more prone to conditioning than others, which is referred to as stimulus/biological preparedness.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 42 - Who is responsible for introducing chlorpromazine into clinical practice? ...

    Incorrect

    • Who is responsible for introducing chlorpromazine into clinical practice?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Delay and Deniker

      Explanation:

      Chlorpromazine, also known as Thorazine, is a medication used to treat various mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe anxiety. It was first synthesized by Paul Charpentier in 1950 and quickly became a popular antipsychotic medication due to its effectiveness in reducing symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions. Chlorpromazine works by blocking certain neurotransmitters in the brain, leading to a calming effect on the patient. Despite its success, chlorpromazine can cause side effects such as drowsiness, dry mouth, and blurred vision. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional before taking this medication.

      A Historical Note on the Development of Zimelidine, the First Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor

      In 1960s, evidence began to emerge suggesting a significant role of serotonin in depression. This led to the development of zimelidine, the first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). Zimelidine was derived from pheniramine and was marketed in Europe in 1982. However, it was removed from the market in 1983 due to severe side effects such as hypersensitivity reactions and Guillain-Barre syndrome.

      Despite its short-lived availability, zimelidine paved the way for the development of other SSRIs such as fluoxetine, which was approved by the FDA in 1987 and launched in the US market in 1988 under the trade name Prozac. The development of SSRIs revolutionized the treatment of depression and other mood disorders, providing a safer and more effective alternative to earlier antidepressants such as the tricyclics and MAO inhibitors.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 43 - Which cell types are responsible for the formation of cerebrospinal fluid? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which cell types are responsible for the formation of cerebrospinal fluid?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Ependymal cells

      Explanation:

      Cerebrospinal Fluid: Formation, Circulation, and Composition

      Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced by ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles. It is constantly reabsorbed, so only a small amount is present at any given time. CSF occupies the space between the arachnoid and pia mater and passes through various foramina and aqueducts to reach the subarachnoid space and spinal cord. It is then reabsorbed by the arachnoid villi and enters the dural venous sinuses.

      The normal intracerebral pressure (ICP) is 5 to 15 mmHg, and the rate of formation of CSF is constant. The composition of CSF is similar to that of brain extracellular fluid (ECF) but different from plasma. CSF has a higher pCO2, lower pH, lower protein content, lower glucose concentration, higher chloride and magnesium concentration, and very low cholesterol content. The concentration of calcium and potassium is lower, while the concentration of sodium is unchanged.

      CSF fulfills the role of returning interstitial fluid and protein to the circulation since there are no lymphatic channels in the brain. The blood-brain barrier separates CSF from blood, and only lipid-soluble substances can easily cross this barrier, maintaining the compositional differences.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 44 - The defining characteristic of virtue theory is: ...

    Incorrect

    • The defining characteristic of virtue theory is:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: The character of the person

      Explanation:

      Ethical theory and principles are important in medical ethics. There are three key ethical theories that have dominated medical ethics: utilitarianism, deontological, and virtue-based. Utilitarianism is based on the greatest good for the greatest number and is a consequentialist theory. Deontological ethics emphasize moral duties and rules, rather than consequences. Virtue ethics is based on the ethical characteristics of a person and is associated with the concept of a good, happy, flourishing life.

      More recent frameworks have attempted to reconcile different theories and values. The ‘four principles’ of ‘principlism’ approach, developed in the United States, is based on four common, basic prima facie moral commitments: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. Autonomy refers to a patient’s right to make their own decisions, beneficence refers to the expectation that a doctor will act in a way that will be helpful to the patient, non-maleficence refers to the fact that doctors should avoid harming their patients, and justice refers to the expectation that all people should be treated fairly and equally.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 45 - What conditions can be identified through administering a clock drawing test? ...

    Incorrect

    • What conditions can be identified through administering a clock drawing test?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Constructional dyspraxia

      Explanation:

      The clock drawing test (CDT) is primarily utilized as a tool for screening cognitive impairment and dementia, as well as measuring spatial dysfunctions and neglect. However, it is not effective in detecting abnormal time perception, disorientation, of poor attention. For identifying disorientation to time, place, and person, the mini-mental state examination (MMSE) is a more suitable screening tool. Additionally, while abnormal clock drawing may occur in other cognitive impairments, CDT is not utilized for detecting episodic memory loss.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cognitive Assessment
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 46 - What is the hypothalamic nucleus that is responsible for regulating heat generation and...

    Incorrect

    • What is the hypothalamic nucleus that is responsible for regulating heat generation and conservation?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Posterior

      Explanation:

      Functions of the Hypothalamus

      The hypothalamus is a vital part of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions. It receives and integrates sensory information about the internal environment and directs actions to control internal homeostasis. The hypothalamus contains several nuclei and fiber tracts, each with specific functions.

      The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is responsible for regulating circadian rhythms. Neurons in the SCN have an intrinsic rhythm of discharge activity and receive input from the retina. The SCN is considered the body’s master clock, but it has multiple connections with other hypothalamic nuclei.

      Body temperature control is mainly under the control of the preoptic, anterior, and posterior nuclei, which have temperature-sensitive neurons. As the temperature goes above 37ºC, warm-sensitive neurons are activated, triggering parasympathetic activity to promote heat loss. As the temperature goes below 37ºC, cold-sensitive neurons are activated, triggering sympathetic activity to promote conservation of heat.

      The hypothalamus also plays a role in regulating prolactin secretion. Dopamine is tonically secreted by dopaminergic neurons that project from the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus into the anterior pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular pathway. The dopamine that is released acts on lactotrophic cells through D2-receptors, inhibiting prolactin synthesis. In the absence of pregnancy of lactation, prolactin is constitutively inhibited by dopamine. Dopamine antagonists result in hyperprolactinemia, while dopamine agonists inhibit prolactin secretion.

      In summary, the hypothalamus is a complex structure that regulates various bodily functions, including circadian rhythms, body temperature, and prolactin secretion. Dysfunction of the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders, such as sleep-rhythm disorder, diabetes insipidus, hyperprolactinemia, and obesity.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 47 - What is the term used to refer to a chromosome with arms of...

    Incorrect

    • What is the term used to refer to a chromosome with arms of equal size?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Metacentric

      Explanation:

      Understanding Centromeres

      A centromere is a crucial part of DNA that connects two sister chromatids. It plays a vital role in cell division by keeping the sister chromatids aligned and allowing the chromosomes to be lined up during metaphase. The position of the centromere divides the chromosome into two arms, the long (q) and the short (p). Chromosomes are classified based on the position of the centromere. Metacentric chromosomes have arms of roughly equal length, and they can be formed by Robertsonian translocations. Acrocentric chromosomes can also be involved in Robertsonian translocations. Monocentric chromosomes have only one centromere and form a narrow constriction, while holocentric chromosomes have the entire length of the chromosome acting as the centromere. Understanding the role and classification of centromeres is essential in comprehending the process of cell division.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 48 - Which antidepressant would be the best option for a patient who has been...

    Incorrect

    • Which antidepressant would be the best option for a patient who has been diagnosed with depression and has also experienced a heart attack in the recent past?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Sertraline

      Explanation:

      Antidepressant Medications and Ischaemic Heart Disease

      The SADHART investigation has shown that sertraline is a safe and effective antidepressant for patients with ischaemic heart disease. However, other medications have not yet been proven safe for this population.

      Amitriptyline, a tricyclic antidepressant, is not recommended for patients with comorbid coronary heart disease due to its high relative risk of myocardial infarction and direct cardiac effects. It may also induce weight gain and increase the risk of diabetes, both of which are known risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

      Mirtazapine has been studied as a safe second line/alternative treatment to SSRIs in post MI depression, but it can also cause weight gain. Further research is needed to determine the safety and efficacy of other antidepressant medications in patients with ischaemic heart disease.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 49 - What is the truth about hyperprolactinemia that is linked to the use of...

    Incorrect

    • What is the truth about hyperprolactinemia that is linked to the use of antipsychotic medication?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: It is often asymptomatic

      Explanation:

      Hyperprolactinemia is frequently without symptoms, and determining whether treatment is necessary involves weighing the present symptoms, potential long-term risks, and perceived advantages of maintaining the antipsychotic. It is frequently discovered by chance and does not typically necessitate altering the medication regimen.

      Hyperprolactinemia is a potential side effect of antipsychotic medication, but it is rare with antidepressants. Dopamine inhibits prolactin, so dopamine antagonists, such as antipsychotics, can increase prolactin levels. The degree of prolactin elevation is dose-related, and some antipsychotics cause more significant increases than others. Hyperprolactinemia can cause symptoms such as galactorrhea, menstrual difficulties, gynecomastia, hypogonadism, and sexual dysfunction. Long-standing hyperprolactinemia in psychiatric patients can increase the risk of osteoporosis and breast cancer, although there is no conclusive evidence that antipsychotic medication increases the risk of breast malignancy and mortality. Some antipsychotics, such as clozapine and aripiprazole, have a low risk of causing hyperprolactinemia, while typical antipsychotics and risperidone have a high risk. Monitoring of prolactin levels is recommended before starting antipsychotic therapy and at three months and annually thereafter. Antidepressants rarely cause hyperprolactinemia, and routine monitoring is not recommended. Symptomatic hyperprolactinemia has been reported with most antidepressants, except for a few, such as mirtazapine, agomelatine, bupropion, and vortioxetine.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds
  • Question 50 - What are the things that a person prescribed an MAOI should avoid? ...

    Incorrect

    • What are the things that a person prescribed an MAOI should avoid?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Soy sauce

      Explanation:

      MAOIs: A Guide to Mechanism of Action, Adverse Effects, and Dietary Restrictions

      First introduced in the 1950s, MAOIs were the first antidepressants introduced. However, they are not the first choice in treating mental health disorders due to several dietary restrictions and safety concerns. They are only a treatment option when all other medications are unsuccessful. MAOIs may be particularly useful in atypical depression (over eating / over sleeping, mood reactivity).

      MAOIs block the monoamine oxidase enzyme, which breaks down different types of neurotransmitters from the brain: norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, as well as tyramine. There are two types of monoamine oxidase, A and B. The MOA A are mostly distributed in the placenta, gut, and liver, but MOA B is present in the brain, liver, and platelets. Selegiline and rasagiline are irreversible and selective inhibitors of MAO type B, but safinamide is a reversible and selective MAO B inhibitor.

      The most common adverse effects of MAOIs occurring early in treatment are orthostatic hypotension, daytime sleepiness, insomnia, and nausea; later common effects include weight gain, muscle pain, myoclonus, paraesthesia, and sexual dysfunction.

      Pharmacodynamic interactions with MAOIs can cause two types of problem: serotonin syndrome (mainly due to SSRIs) and elevated blood pressure (caused by indirectly acting sympathomimetic amines releasers, like pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine). The combination of MAOIs and some TCAs appears safe. Only those TCAs with significant serotonin reuptake inhibition (clomipramine and imipramine) are likely to increase the risk of serotonin syndrome.

      Tyramine is a monoamine found in various foods, and is an indirect sympathomimetic that can cause a hypertensive reaction in patients receiving MAOI therapy. For this reason, dietary restrictions are required for patients receiving MAOIs. These restrictions include avoiding matured/aged cheese, fermented sausage, improperly stored meat, fava of broad bean pods, and certain drinks such as on-tap beer. Allowed foods include fresh cottage cheese, processed cheese slices, fresh packaged of processed meat, and other alcohol (no more than two bottled or canned beers of two standard glasses of wine, per day).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      0
      Seconds

SESSION STATS - PERFORMANCE PER SPECIALTY

Psychopharmacology (0/1) 0%
Passmed