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Question 1
Correct
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A 45-year-old patient presents to the neurology clinic with recurrent episodes of vision loss, one instance of urinary incontinence, and left arm tingling. The neurologist suspects a demyelinating disease. Which specific cell is responsible for myelinating axons in the central nervous system?
Your Answer: Oligodendrocytes
Explanation:The CNS relies on oligodendrocytes to produce myelin, while Schwann cells are responsible for myelin production in the PNS. Oligodendrocytes can myelinate up to 50 axons each, and are often mistaken for Schwann cells. Multiple sclerosis is a disease that affects oligodendrocytes in the CNS. Microglia are specialized phagocytes in the CNS, while astrocytes provide structural support and remove excess potassium ions from the extracellular space.
The nervous system is composed of various types of cells, each with their own unique functions. Oligodendroglia cells are responsible for producing myelin in the central nervous system (CNS) and are affected in multiple sclerosis. Schwann cells, on the other hand, produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and are affected in Guillain-Barre syndrome. Astrocytes provide physical support, remove excess potassium ions, help form the blood-brain barrier, and aid in physical repair. Microglia are specialised CNS phagocytes, while ependymal cells provide the inner lining of the ventricles.
In summary, the nervous system is made up of different types of cells, each with their own specific roles. Oligodendroglia and Schwann cells produce myelin in the CNS and PNS, respectively, and are affected in certain diseases. Astrocytes provide physical support and aid in repair, while microglia are specialised phagocytes in the CNS. Ependymal cells line the ventricles. Understanding the functions of these cells is crucial in understanding the complex workings of the nervous system.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Neurological System
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Question 2
Incorrect
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A 54-year-old man from Egypt has been experiencing repeated episodes of haematuria for several years. He complains of discomfort in the suprapubic region and upon cystoscopy, a mass lesion is discovered in his bladder. What is the probable diagnosis?
Your Answer: Leiomyosarcoma
Correct Answer: Squamous cell carcinoma
Explanation:Schistosomiasis is more prevalent in Egypt than in the UK and can lead to repeated occurrences of haematuria. If individuals with this condition develop a bladder tumor, the most frequent type is SCC.
Bladder cancer is a common urological cancer that primarily affects males aged 50-80 years old. Smoking and exposure to hydrocarbons increase the risk of developing the disease. Chronic bladder inflammation from Schistosomiasis infection is also a common cause of squamous cell carcinomas in countries where the disease is endemic. Benign tumors of the bladder, such as inverted urothelial papilloma and nephrogenic adenoma, are rare. The most common bladder malignancies are urothelial (transitional cell) carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma. Urothelial carcinomas may be solitary or multifocal, with papillary growth patterns having a better prognosis. The remaining tumors may be of higher grade and prone to local invasion, resulting in a worse prognosis.
The TNM staging system is used to describe the extent of bladder cancer. Most patients present with painless, macroscopic hematuria, and a cystoscopy and biopsies or TURBT are used to provide a histological diagnosis and information on depth of invasion. Pelvic MRI and CT scanning are used to determine locoregional spread, and PET CT may be used to investigate nodes of uncertain significance. Treatment options include TURBT, intravesical chemotherapy, surgery (radical cystectomy and ileal conduit), and radical radiotherapy. The prognosis varies depending on the stage of the cancer, with T1 having a 90% survival rate and any T, N1-N2 having a 30% survival rate.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Renal System
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Question 3
Incorrect
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A 32-year-old female patient visits your clinic complaining of fatigue and unexplained weight gain. She mentions feeling extremely sensitive to cold temperatures. You suspect hypothyroidism and decide to conduct a test on her serum levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (T4). Which of the following hormones is not secreted from the anterior pituitary gland, where TSH is released?
Your Answer: Growth hormone
Correct Answer: antidiuretic hormone
Explanation:The hormone ADH (also known as vasopressin) is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland and acts in the collecting ducts of the kidneys to increase water reabsorption. Unlike ADH, all of the other hormone options presented are released from the anterior pituitary. ACTH is a component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis and increases the production and release of cortisol from the adrenal gland. GH (also called somatotropin) is an anabolic hormone that stimulates growth in childhood and has metabolic effects on protein, glucose, and lipids. FSH is a gonadotropin that promotes the maturation of germ cells.
Thyroid disorders are commonly encountered in clinical practice, with hypothyroidism and thyrotoxicosis being the most prevalent. Women are ten times more likely to develop these conditions than men. The thyroid gland is a bi-lobed structure located in the anterior neck and is part of a hypothalamus-pituitary-end organ system that regulates the production of thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones help regulate energy sources, protein synthesis, and the body’s sensitivity to other hormones. Hypothyroidism can be primary or secondary, while thyrotoxicosis is mostly primary. Autoimmunity is the leading cause of thyroid problems in the developed world.
Thyroid disorders can present in various ways, with symptoms often being the opposite depending on whether the thyroid gland is under or overactive. For example, hypothyroidism may result in weight gain, while thyrotoxicosis leads to weight loss. Thyroid function tests are the primary investigation for diagnosing thyroid disorders. These tests primarily look at serum TSH and T4 levels, with T3 being measured in specific cases. TSH levels are more sensitive than T4 levels for monitoring patients with existing thyroid problems.
Treatment for thyroid disorders depends on the cause. Patients with hypothyroidism are given levothyroxine to replace the underlying deficiency. Patients with thyrotoxicosis may be treated with propranolol to control symptoms such as tremors, carbimazole to reduce thyroid hormone production, or radioiodine treatment.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Endocrine System
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Question 4
Incorrect
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A 45-year-old man has been prescribed penicillin V by his doctor for a bacterial upper respiratory tract infection. However, after taking the first dose, he experiences shortness of breath and develops a red rash all over his body. His wife calls for an ambulance and he is rushed to the hospital. Upon examination, he is found to have stridor, low oxygen saturation levels, and is using his accessory muscles to breathe. The paramedics have also administered an intramuscular injection in his thigh, causing his trousers to be removed. What type of receptors does the emergency drug used in this situation target?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: G-protein coupled receptor
Explanation:Adrenergic receptors activate G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).
The correct answer is GPCRs, as these are the receptors that bind to adrenaline. Adrenaline is often administered as an intramuscular medication in emergency cases of anaphylaxis to induce vasoconstriction and maintain heart function during anaphylactic shock. When adrenaline binds to adrenergic receptors, it activates G proteins, which in turn activate adenylyl cyclase to produce cyclic AMP. This activates PKA, which phosphorylates intracellular proteins to produce the desired effects.
Ligand-gated ion channels are not activated by adrenaline, as they respond to other ligands such as acetylcholine. For example, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors open their pores in response to acetylcholine, allowing Na+ influx and producing a depolarization effect.
Steroid receptors are also not activated by adrenaline, as they are intracellular receptors that respond to endogenous steroids such as oestrogen and thyroxine. They induce gene transcription, typically with much slower effects than the adrenaline GPCRs.
Adrenergic receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptors that respond to the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine. These receptors are primarily involved in the sympathetic nervous system. There are four types of adrenergic receptors: α1, α2, β1, and β2. Each receptor has a different potency order and primary action. The α1 receptor responds equally to norepinephrine and epinephrine, causing smooth muscle contraction. The α2 receptor has mixed effects and responds equally to both catecholamines. The β1 receptor responds equally to epinephrine and norepinephrine, causing cardiac muscle contraction. The β2 receptor responds much more strongly to epinephrine than norepinephrine, causing smooth muscle relaxation.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- General Principles
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Question 5
Incorrect
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A 55-year-old man comes to the clinic complaining of black tarry stools. Upon endoscopy, he is found to have a peptic ulcer. What is the primary risk factor for developing peptic ulcers?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Helicobacter pylori colonisation of the stomach
Explanation:Causes of Peptic Ulcers
Peptic ulcers are a common condition that can cause discomfort and pain in the stomach. The most common cause of peptic ulcers is the presence of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in the stomach. This bacteria can cause inflammation and damage to the lining of the stomach, leading to the formation of ulcers. Another common cause of peptic ulcers is the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). These drugs can suppress the production of prostaglandins in the stomach, which can lead to inflammation and damage to the stomach lining.
In addition to these causes, smoking can also increase the risk of developing peptic ulcers. Smoking can suppress the production of prostaglandins in the stomach, impair mucosal blood flow, and increase gastric acid secretion. However, it is important to note that being female is not a risk factor for peptic ulcers. In fact, men are more likely to be affected by this condition. Overall, the causes of peptic ulcers can help individuals take steps to prevent and manage this condition.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Clinical Sciences
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Question 6
Incorrect
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Which enzyme plays a critical role in the conversion of cAMP to AMP during cellular signaling?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Phosphodiesterase
Explanation:Enzymes and their Functions in Cellular Processes
Phosphodiesterases are enzymes that break down the phosphodiester bond found in the second messengers cAMP and cGMP. These messengers play a crucial role in regulating various cellular functions such as energy metabolism, ion channels, and contractile proteins in smooth muscle. In smooth muscle, relaxation is achieved when cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylates myosin-light-chain kinase, causing it to be inactivated and preventing contraction.
Acetylcholinesterase is another enzyme that plays a vital role in cellular processes. It breaks down acetylcholine, which acts as a neurotransmitter. Carbonic anhydrase, on the other hand, catalyzes the reaction between water and carbon dioxide, releasing bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.
Guanylate cyclase is an enzyme that converts guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and pyrophosphate during G protein signaling cascade. Finally, protein kinase is a phosphorylation enzyme that acts on proteins, regulating their functions in various cellular processes.
In summary, enzymes play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes. From breaking down second messengers to catalyzing reactions and regulating protein functions, enzymes are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Clinical Sciences
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Question 7
Incorrect
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A 67-year-old man experienced sudden onset chest pain and difficulty breathing at home. Upon examination, an electrocardiogram revealed ST-elevation in the anterior leads, indicating an anterior ST-elevation myocardial infarction. He was transported to the nearest primary percutaneous coronary intervention center where he underwent angioplasty and received two stents in the left anterior descending artery. Abciximab was administered during the procedure. What is the mechanism of action of this medication?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist
Explanation:Abciximab is a type of medication that blocks the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor, which has been found to reduce the occurrence of negative coronary events (such as heart attack or death) within the first month after primary angioplasty.
Another medication commonly used after cardiac stent implantation is clopidogrel, which inhibits ADP receptors and is part of the standard dual antiplatelet therapy.
Fondaparinux is an indirect factor Xa inhibitor that is often used to treat non-ST elevation myocardial infarctions and unstable angina, but is less frequently used in angioplasty due to the risk of bleeding.
Monoclonal antibodies are becoming increasingly important in the field of medicine. They are created using a technique called somatic cell hybridization, which involves fusing myeloma cells with spleen cells from an immunized mouse to produce a hybridoma. This hybridoma acts as a factory for producing monoclonal antibodies.
However, a major limitation of this technique is that mouse antibodies can be immunogenic, leading to the formation of human anti-mouse antibodies. To overcome this problem, a process called humanizing is used. This involves combining the variable region from the mouse body with the constant region from a human antibody.
There are several clinical examples of monoclonal antibodies, including infliximab for rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn’s, rituximab for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis, and cetuximab for metastatic colorectal cancer and head and neck cancer. Monoclonal antibodies are also used for medical imaging when combined with a radioisotope, identifying cell surface markers in biopsied tissue, and diagnosing viral infections.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- General Principles
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Question 8
Incorrect
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A study investigating the effectiveness of a new medication to reduce agitation in 30 participants aged 65 and above with dementia measures the number of episodes of agitation in a four hour period before and after treatment. The data collected is not normally distributed.
Which statistical test would be most suitable for analyzing the results of this study?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Explanation:Types of Significance Tests
Significance tests are used to determine whether the results of a study are statistically significant or simply due to chance. The type of significance test used depends on the type of data being analyzed. Parametric tests are used for data that can be measured and are usually normally distributed, while non-parametric tests are used for data that cannot be measured in this way.
Parametric tests include the Student’s t-test, which can be paired or unpaired, and Pearson’s product-moment coefficient, which is used for correlation analysis. Non-parametric tests include the Mann-Whitney U test, which compares ordinal, interval, or ratio scales of unpaired data, and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, which compares two sets of observations on a single sample. The chi-squared test is used to compare proportions or percentages, while Spearman and Kendall rank are used for correlation analysis.
It is important to choose the appropriate significance test for the type of data being analyzed in order to obtain accurate and reliable results. By understanding the different types of significance tests available, researchers can make informed decisions about which test to use for their particular study.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- General Principles
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Question 9
Incorrect
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A 76-year-old man is undergoing a femoro-popliteal bypass graft. The surgery is not going smoothly, and the surgeon is having difficulty accessing the area. Which structure needs to be retracted to improve access to the femoral artery in the groin?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Sartorius
Explanation:To enhance accessibility, the sartorius muscle can be pulled back as the femoral artery passes beneath it at the lower boundary of the femoral triangle.
Understanding the Anatomy of the Femoral Triangle
The femoral triangle is an important anatomical region located in the upper thigh. It is bounded by the inguinal ligament superiorly, the sartorius muscle laterally, and the adductor longus muscle medially. The floor of the femoral triangle is made up of the iliacus, psoas major, adductor longus, and pectineus muscles, while the roof is formed by the fascia lata and superficial fascia. The superficial inguinal lymph nodes and the long saphenous vein are also found in this region.
The femoral triangle contains several important structures, including the femoral vein, femoral artery, femoral nerve, deep and superficial inguinal lymph nodes, lateral cutaneous nerve, great saphenous vein, and femoral branch of the genitofemoral nerve. The femoral artery can be palpated at the mid inguinal point, making it an important landmark for medical professionals.
Understanding the anatomy of the femoral triangle is important for medical professionals, as it is a common site for procedures such as venipuncture, arterial puncture, and nerve blocks. It is also important for identifying and treating conditions that affect the structures within this region, such as femoral hernias and lymphadenopathy.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Gastrointestinal System
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Question 10
Incorrect
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A 55-year-old man is undergoing investigation for a secondary cause of early-onset heart failure and a systolic murmur. He is referred for an echocardiogram, which reveals an ejection fraction of 62% and impaired diastolic function of the myocardial tissue. Additionally, the report notes a septal wall thickness of 17mm. What is the most probable condition responsible for these findings?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy
Explanation:Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM) is a likely cause of diastolic dysfunction, which can lead to heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HF-pEF). This genetic cardiomyopathy is associated with sudden cardiac death, syncope, and heart failure. Unlike other conditions, such as degenerative calcification of the aortic valve or dilated cardiomyopathy, HOCM typically presents with diastolic dysfunction rather than systolic dysfunction. Ischaemic heart disease is also unlikely to be the cause of diastolic dysfunction and would typically present with heart failure and systolic dysfunction.
Types of Heart Failure
Heart failure is a clinical syndrome where the heart cannot pump enough blood to meet the body’s metabolic needs. It can be classified in multiple ways, including by ejection fraction, time, and left/right side. Patients with heart failure may have a normal or abnormal left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), which is measured using echocardiography. Reduced LVEF is typically defined as < 35 to 40% and is termed heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HF-rEF), while preserved LVEF is termed heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HF-pEF). Heart failure can also be described as acute or chronic, with acute heart failure referring to an acute exacerbation of chronic heart failure. Left-sided heart failure is more common and may be due to increased left ventricular afterload or preload, while right-sided heart failure is caused by increased right ventricular afterload or preload. High-output heart failure is another type of heart failure that occurs when a normal heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's metabolic needs. By classifying heart failure in these ways, healthcare professionals can better understand the underlying causes and tailor treatment plans accordingly. It is important to note that many guidelines for the management of heart failure only cover HF-rEF patients and do not address the management of HF-pEF patients. Understanding the different types of heart failure can help healthcare professionals provide more effective care for their patients.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Cardiovascular System
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Question 11
Incorrect
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A 43-year-old man is seeking information about the COVID-19 vaccine. He has heard that the vaccine may not provide complete protection and wants to know how effective it is. As his healthcare provider, you provide him with the following data for this specific vaccine:
Vaccinated Not vaccinated Total
COVID-19 occurred 10 90 100
COVID-19 did not occur 90 10 100
Column totals 100 100 200
What is the most appropriate response to this patient's inquiry?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: (10/100 - 90/100) / 90/100 = -90%
Explanation:Understanding Relative Risk in Clinical Trials
Relative risk (RR) is a measure used in clinical trials to compare the risk of an event occurring in the experimental group to the risk in the control group. It is calculated by dividing the experimental event rate (EER) by the control event rate (CER). If the resulting ratio is greater than 1, it means that the event is more likely to occur in the experimental group than in the control group. Conversely, if the ratio is less than 1, the event is less likely to occur in the experimental group.
To calculate the relative risk reduction (RRR) or relative risk increase (RRI), the absolute risk change is divided by the control event rate. This provides a percentage that indicates the magnitude of the difference between the two groups. Understanding relative risk is important in evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and treatments in clinical trials. By comparing the risk of an event in the experimental group to the control group, researchers can determine whether the intervention is beneficial or not.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- General Principles
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Question 12
Incorrect
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A boy dashes to catch a bus.
What adjustments does his body undergo for this brief physical activity?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Increased blood flow to skin
Explanation:Phases of Physiological Response to Exercise
Regular exercise triggers a series of physiological responses in the body. These responses can be divided into three phases: stress reaction, resistance reaction, and adaptation reaction. The stress reaction is the initial response to short-term exercise. During this phase, the body increases sympathetic activity, reduces parasympathetic activity, and redirects blood flow to muscles and skin for cooling. Respiration becomes deeper and metabolic buffering responds to the generation of lactic acid through anaerobic respiration.
As exercise continues, the resistance reaction takes over. This phase occurs minutes to hours after the initiation of exercise and involves the release of hormones such as ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone, and adrenaline. Finally, the adaptation reaction develops over days to weeks of regular exercise. During this phase, genes are activated in exercising tissues, promoting increases in strength, speed, and endurance.
Overall, the phases of physiological response to exercise can help individuals tailor their exercise routines to achieve their desired outcomes. By gradually increasing the intensity and duration of exercise, individuals can promote the adaptation reaction and achieve long-term improvements in their physical fitness.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Clinical Sciences
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Question 13
Incorrect
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A 20-year-old woman is undergoing evaluation by a psychiatrist for her eating patterns. She confesses to engaging in binge eating and then inducing vomiting for the last half-year. During the physical examination, her BMI is measured at 20 kg/m², and enamel erosion is observed.
What acid-base and electrolyte imbalances are commonly linked to her eating disorder?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Metabolic alkalosis, hypochloraemia, hypokalaemia
Explanation:Metabolic alkalosis, hypokalemia, and hypochloremia are commonly observed in individuals with bulimia nervosa, even if their BMI falls within a normal range. This is due to the excessive self-induced vomiting, which results in the loss of stomach acid (HCl) and potassium.
Understanding Bulimia Nervosa
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder that is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by purging behaviors such as self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or other medications, fasting, or excessive exercise. According to the DSM 5 diagnostic criteria, individuals with bulimia nervosa experience a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode, and the binge eating and compensatory behaviors occur at least once a week for three months. Recurrent vomiting may lead to erosion of teeth and Russell’s sign – calluses on the knuckles or back of the hand due to repeated self-induced vomiting.
Individuals with bulimia nervosa are unduly influenced by body shape and weight, and their self-evaluation is often based on these factors. It is important to note that the disturbance does not occur exclusively during episodes of anorexia nervosa. Referral for specialist care is appropriate in all cases, and NICE recommends bulimia-nervosa-focused guided self-help for adults. If this approach is not effective, individual eating-disorder-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT-ED) may be considered. Children should be offered bulimia-nervosa-focused family therapy (FT-BN). While pharmacological treatments have a limited role, a trial of high-dose fluoxetine is currently licensed for bulimia, but long-term data is lacking.
In summary, bulimia nervosa is a serious eating disorder that requires specialized care. Early intervention and treatment can help individuals recover and improve their quality of life.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Psychiatry
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Question 14
Incorrect
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From which embryological structure is the ureter derived?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Mesonephric duct
Explanation:The ureter originates from the mesonephric duct, which is linked to the metanephric duct located in the metenephrogenic blastema. The ureteric bud emerges from the metanephric duct and separates from the mesonephric duct, forming the foundation of the ureter.
Anatomy of the Ureter
The ureter is a muscular tube that measures 25-35 cm in length and is lined by transitional epithelium. It is surrounded by a thick muscular coat that becomes three muscular layers as it crosses the bony pelvis. This retroperitoneal structure overlies the transverse processes L2-L5 and lies anterior to the bifurcation of iliac vessels. The blood supply to the ureter is segmental and includes the renal artery, aortic branches, gonadal branches, common iliac, and internal iliac. It is important to note that the ureter lies beneath the uterine artery.
In summary, the ureter is a vital structure in the urinary system that plays a crucial role in transporting urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Its unique anatomy and blood supply make it a complex structure that requires careful consideration in any surgical or medical intervention.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Gastrointestinal System
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Question 15
Incorrect
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A 14-year-old unvaccinated girl visits her doctor with her father, reporting a fever, sore throat, and occasional cough. The doctor orders a throat swab for testing.
After a few days, the microbiology lab contacts the doctor to report the identification of an organism on Loeffler's medium.
What is the probable causative agent?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Explanation:Corynebacterium diphtheriae is the correct answer for the cause of the child’s symptoms. The child’s lack of vaccination increases the likelihood of this diagnosis. Corynebacterium diphtheriae is typically grown in Loeffler’s medium, an enrichment medium.
Bordetella pertussis is an incorrect answer. Although it can cause similar symptoms, it is grown in Bordet-Gengou agar.
Haemophilus influenzae is also an incorrect answer. It can cause serious infections, but it is grown in chocolate agar.
Staphylococcus aureus is an unlikely cause of the child’s symptoms and can be grown on general unenriched culture media such as blood agar.
Culture Requirements for Common Organisms
Different microorganisms require specific culture conditions to grow and thrive. The table above lists some of the culture requirements for the more common organisms. For instance, Neisseria gonorrhoeae requires Thayer-Martin agar, which is a variant of chocolate agar, and the addition of Vancomycin, Polymyxin, and Nystatin to inhibit Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungal growth, respectively. Haemophilus influenzae, on the other hand, grows on chocolate agar with factors V (NAD+) and X (hematin).
To remember the culture requirements for some of these organisms, some mnemonics can be used. For example, Nice Homes have chocolate can help recall that Neisseria and Haemophilus grow on chocolate agar. If I Tell-U the Corny joke Right, you’ll Laugh can be used to remember that Corynebacterium diphtheriae grows on tellurite agar or Loeffler’s media. Lactating pink monkeys can help recall that lactose fermenting bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, grow on MacConkey agar resulting in pink colonies. Finally, BORDETella pertussis can be used to remember that Bordetella pertussis grows on Bordet-Gengou (potato) agar.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- General Principles
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Question 16
Incorrect
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A young adult female arrives at the Emergency Department after ingesting 18 paracetamol tablets in a moment of impulsivity during a disagreement with her partner. It has been six hours since she took the tablets and her paracetamol levels are measured, indicating the need for treatment. The patient is initiated on N-acetylcysteine. What is the mechanism of action of this medication?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Replaces compounds used in paracetamol metabolism
Explanation:Paracetamol Metabolism and Toxicity
Paracetamol is metabolised in two ways. The first mechanism involves conjugation with glucuronic acid, resulting in a safe metabolite that can be excreted. However, there is a limit to how much paracetamol can be metabolised this way. The second mechanism is used when a large amount of paracetamol is taken. In this case, paracetamol is oxidised to a toxic metabolite called N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone. This metabolite can cause liver and kidney necrosis if glutathione supplies are exhausted.
Glutathione is responsible for making the toxic metabolite safe. However, when glutathione supplies are depleted, the toxic metabolite can cause damage to the liver and kidneys. N-acetylcysteine is a protective agent that increases the rate of glutathione synthesis. Therefore, it can help prevent liver and kidney damage caused by the toxic metabolite of paracetamol.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Pharmacology
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Question 17
Incorrect
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A 38-year-old male presents to a neurology clinic with complaints of recent falls and slurred speech. During examination, he exhibits horizontal nystagmus, difficulty with repetitive hand movements, and an intention tremor. What area of the brain is most likely affected by his lesion?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Cerebellum
Explanation:Unconsciousness can be caused by lesions in the brainstem.
Cerebellar syndrome is a condition that affects the cerebellum, a part of the brain responsible for coordinating movement and balance. When there is damage or injury to one side of the cerebellum, it can cause symptoms on the same side of the body. These symptoms can be remembered using the mnemonic DANISH, which stands for Dysdiadochokinesia, Dysmetria, Ataxia, Nystagmus, Intention tremour, Slurred staccato speech, and Hypotonia.
There are several possible causes of cerebellar syndrome, including genetic conditions like Friedreich’s ataxia and ataxic telangiectasia, neoplastic growths like cerebellar haemangioma, strokes, alcohol use, multiple sclerosis, hypothyroidism, and certain medications or toxins like phenytoin or lead poisoning. In some cases, cerebellar syndrome may be a paraneoplastic condition, meaning it is a secondary effect of an underlying cancer like lung cancer. It is important to identify the underlying cause of cerebellar syndrome in order to provide appropriate treatment and management.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Neurological System
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Question 18
Incorrect
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A 41-year-old male presents to the general practitioner with a 4-month history of a lump in his right testicle. On examination, there is a discrete nodule located near the superior pole of the right testicle and the left testicle is unremarkable. The patient is referred for further investigations and is ultimately diagnosed with a testicular seminoma.
In this patient, what is the most likely lymph node region for initial metastatic spread?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Para-aortic nodes
Explanation:The para-aortic nodes are responsible for receiving lymph drainage from the testes. This is because the testes develop in the abdomen and move down the posterior abdominal wall during fetal development, leading to their lymphatic drainage coming from the para-aortic lymph nodes. Therefore, the para-aortic nodes are the most likely location for lymphatic spread from the testes.
The inferior mesenteric nodes are not responsible for lymph drainage from the testes as they primarily drain hindgut structures such as the transverse colon down to the rectum. Similarly, the internal iliac nodes drain the inferior portion of the rectum, the anal canal superior to the pectinate line, and the pelvic viscera, but not the testes. The posterior mediastinal chain is also not responsible for lymph drainage from the testes as it drains the oesophagus, mediastinum, and posterior surface of the diaphragm.
Lymphatic drainage is the process by which lymphatic vessels carry lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells, away from tissues and organs and towards lymph nodes. The lymphatic vessels that drain the skin and follow venous drainage are called superficial lymphatic vessels, while those that drain internal organs and structures follow the arteries and are called deep lymphatic vessels. These vessels eventually lead to lymph nodes, which filter and remove harmful substances from the lymph before it is returned to the bloodstream.
The lymphatic system is divided into two main ducts: the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains the right side of the head and right arm, while the thoracic duct drains everything else. Both ducts eventually drain into the venous system.
Different areas of the body have specific primary lymph node drainage sites. For example, the superficial inguinal lymph nodes drain the anal canal below the pectinate line, perineum, skin of the thigh, penis, scrotum, and vagina. The deep inguinal lymph nodes drain the glans penis, while the para-aortic lymph nodes drain the testes, ovaries, kidney, and adrenal gland. The axillary lymph nodes drain the lateral breast and upper limb, while the internal iliac lymph nodes drain the anal canal above the pectinate line, lower part of the rectum, and pelvic structures including the cervix and inferior part of the uterus. The superior mesenteric lymph nodes drain the duodenum and jejunum, while the inferior mesenteric lymph nodes drain the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper part of the rectum. Finally, the coeliac lymph nodes drain the stomach.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Haematology And Oncology
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Question 19
Incorrect
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What stage of cellular respiration is responsible for the production of pyruvic acid?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Glycolysis
Explanation:The Versatility of Pyruvic Acid in Cellular Metabolism
Pyruvic acid is a simple alpha-keto acid that plays a crucial role in several metabolic pathways within the cell. It serves as a central intersection where different pathways converge and diverge. One of the primary ways pyruvic acid is produced is through glycolysis, where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid. Depending on the cell’s needs, pyruvic acid can be converted back into glucose through gluconeogenesis or used to synthesize fatty acids through the acetyl-CoA pathway. Additionally, pyruvic acid can be used to produce the amino acid alanine.
Pyruvic acid is also involved in respiration, where it enters the Krebs cycle under aerobic conditions. This cycle produces energy in the form of ATP, which is used by the cell for various functions. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvic acid can ferment into lactic acid, which is used by some organisms as a source of energy.
In summary, pyruvic acid is a versatile molecule that plays a critical role in cellular metabolism. Its ability to be converted into different molecules depending on the cell’s needs makes it an essential component of many metabolic pathways.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 20
Incorrect
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A 14-year-old girl with beta thalassaemia major is receiving counselling from her haematologist regarding the potential complications of her condition. The doctor explains that frequent blood transfusions may result in iron overload, which can result in liver damage and heart failure. What is an example of an iron chelation medication?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Deferiprone
Explanation:To prevent complications from iron overload caused by frequent transfusions in beta-thalassaemia major, iron chelation therapy is crucial. Iron chelation agents such as Deferiprone, Deferoxamine, and Deferasirox are commonly used for this purpose. Trientine is a copper chelator used in Wilson’s disease, while Dimercaptosuccinic acid is used as a lead chelator. Penicillamine is primarily used to treat copper toxicity.
Understanding Beta-Thalassaemia Major
Beta-thalassaemia major is a genetic disorder that results from the absence of beta globulin chains on chromosome 11. This condition typically presents in the first year of life with symptoms such as failure to thrive and hepatosplenomegaly. Microcytic anaemia is also a common feature, with raised levels of HbA2 and HbF, but absent HbA.
Management of beta-thalassaemia major involves repeated transfusions, which can lead to iron overload and organ failure. Therefore, iron chelation therapy, such as desferrioxamine, is crucial to prevent complications. It is important to understand the features and management of this condition to provide appropriate care for affected individuals.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Haematology And Oncology
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Question 21
Incorrect
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A 16-year-old female arrives at the emergency department accompanied by her father. According to him, she was watching TV when she suddenly complained of a tingling sensation on the left side of her body. She then reported that her leg had gone numb. Her father mentions that both he and his sister have epilepsy. Given her altered spatial perception and sensation, you suspect that she may have experienced a seizure. What type of seizure is most probable?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Parietal lobe seizure
Explanation:Paresthesia is a symptom that can help identify a parietal lobe seizure.
When a patient experiences a parietal lobe seizure, they may feel a tingling sensation on one side of their body or even experience numbness in certain areas. This type of seizure is not very common and is typically associated with sensory symptoms.
On the other hand, occipital lobe seizures tend to cause visual disturbances like seeing flashes or floaters. Temporal lobe seizures can lead to hallucinations, which can affect the senses of hearing, taste, and smell. Additionally, they may cause repetitive movements like lip smacking or grabbing.
Absence seizures are more commonly seen in children between the ages of 3 and 10. These seizures are brief and cause the person to stop what they are doing and stare off into space with a blank expression. Fortunately, most children with absence seizures will outgrow them by adolescence.
Finally, frontal lobe seizures often cause movements of the head or legs and can result in a period of weakness after the seizure has ended.
Localising Features of Focal Seizures in Epilepsy
Focal seizures in epilepsy can be localised based on the specific location of the brain where they occur. Temporal lobe seizures are common and may occur with or without impairment of consciousness or awareness. Most patients experience an aura, which is typically a rising epigastric sensation, along with psychic or experiential phenomena such as déjà vu or jamais vu. Less commonly, hallucinations may occur, such as auditory, gustatory, or olfactory hallucinations. These seizures typically last around one minute and are often accompanied by automatisms, such as lip smacking, grabbing, or plucking.
On the other hand, frontal lobe seizures are characterised by motor symptoms such as head or leg movements, posturing, postictal weakness, and Jacksonian march. Parietal lobe seizures, on the other hand, are sensory in nature and may cause paraesthesia. Finally, occipital lobe seizures may cause visual symptoms such as floaters or flashes. By identifying the specific location and type of seizure, doctors can better diagnose and treat epilepsy in patients.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Neurological System
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Question 22
Incorrect
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A 25-year-old woman comes to the clinic after attempting suicide. The physician suspects an underlying psychiatric condition and conducts a screening for psychiatric symptoms. During the screening, the patient reports experiencing symptoms for the past two years, such as feeling low, fatigue, and loss of interest in her hobbies. Based on this, the doctor diagnoses her with major depressive disorder. What clinical feature would warrant a reevaluation of her diagnosis?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Persecutory delusions
Explanation:Schizophrenia can be indicated by the presence of persecutory delusions, while the symptoms of depression align with the diagnosis. Guilty delusions, specifically, are a symptom commonly seen in cases of psychotic depression.
Screening and Assessment of Depression
Depression is a common mental health condition that affects many people worldwide. Screening and assessment are important steps in identifying and managing depression. The screening process involves asking two simple questions to determine if a person is experiencing symptoms of depression. If the answer is yes to either question, a more in-depth assessment is necessary.
Assessment tools such as the Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) scale and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) are commonly used to assess the severity of depression. The HAD scale consists of 14 questions, seven for anxiety and seven for depression. Each item is scored from 0-3, producing a score out of 21 for both anxiety and depression. The PHQ-9 asks patients about nine different problems they may have experienced in the last two weeks, which can then be scored from 0-3. This tool also includes questions about thoughts of self-harm.
The DSM-IV criteria are used by NICE to grade depression. This criteria includes nine different symptoms, such as depressed mood, diminished interest or pleasure in activities, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt. The severity of depression can range from subthreshold depressive symptoms to severe depression with or without psychotic symptoms.
In conclusion, screening and assessment are crucial steps in identifying and managing depression. By using tools such as the HAD scale and PHQ-9, healthcare professionals can accurately assess the severity of depression and provide appropriate treatment.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Psychiatry
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Question 23
Incorrect
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A 10-year-old girl with no previous medical history presents to the emergency department with vomiting and diarrhea. She also complains of abdominal pain. A venous blood gas test is performed and shows the following results:
Normal range
pH: 7.14 (7.35 - 7.45)
pO2: 11.6 (10 - 14)kPa
pCO2: 3.3 (4.5 - 6.0)kPa
HCO3: 10 (22 - 26)mmol/l
BE: -16 (-2 to +2)mmol/l
Lactate: 4.1 0.6-1.8mmol/l
Potassium: 5.4 3.5-5 mmol/l
A blood glucose finger-prick test is also performed, which reads Glucose = 24. Based on the information provided, what is the most likely diagnosis?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Diabetic ketoacidosis
Explanation:Diabetic ketoacidosis is depicted in this image. It is a critical condition that requires urgent attention, with a focus on administering insulin, fluid resuscitation, and closely monitoring potassium levels.
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious complication of type 1 diabetes mellitus, accounting for around 6% of cases. It can also occur in rare cases of extreme stress in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. DKA is caused by uncontrolled lipolysis, resulting in an excess of free fatty acids that are converted to ketone bodies. The most common precipitating factors of DKA are infection, missed insulin doses, and myocardial infarction. Symptoms include abdominal pain, polyuria, polydipsia, dehydration, Kussmaul respiration, and breath that smells like acetone. Diagnostic criteria include glucose levels above 11 mmol/l or known diabetes mellitus, pH below 7.3, bicarbonate below 15 mmol/l, and ketones above 3 mmol/l or urine ketones ++ on dipstick.
Management of DKA involves fluid replacement, insulin, and correction of electrolyte disturbance. Fluid replacement is necessary as most patients with DKA are deplete around 5-8 litres. Isotonic saline is used initially, even if the patient is severely acidotic. Insulin is administered through an intravenous infusion, and correction of electrolyte disturbance is necessary. Long-acting insulin should be continued, while short-acting insulin should be stopped. Complications may occur from DKA itself or the treatment, such as gastric stasis, thromboembolism, arrhythmias, acute respiratory distress syndrome, acute kidney injury, and cerebral edema. Children and young adults are particularly vulnerable to cerebral edema following fluid resuscitation in DKA and often need 1:1 nursing to monitor neuro-observations, headache, irritability, visual disturbance, focal neurology, etc.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Endocrine System
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Question 24
Incorrect
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Which type of epithelium lines the lumenal surface of the typical esophagus?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Non keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
Explanation:The lining of the oesophagus is composed of stratified squamous epithelium that is not keratinised. Metaplastic processes in reflux can lead to the transformation of this epithelium into glandular type epithelium.
Anatomy of the Oesophagus
The oesophagus is a muscular tube that is approximately 25 cm long and starts at the C6 vertebrae, pierces the diaphragm at T10, and ends at T11. It is lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and has constrictions at various distances from the incisors, including the cricoid cartilage at 15cm, the arch of the aorta at 22.5cm, the left principal bronchus at 27cm, and the diaphragmatic hiatus at 40cm.
The oesophagus is surrounded by various structures, including the trachea to T4, the recurrent laryngeal nerve, the left bronchus and left atrium, and the diaphragm anteriorly. Posteriorly, it is related to the thoracic duct to the left at T5, the hemiazygos to the left at T8, the descending aorta, and the first two intercostal branches of the aorta. The arterial, venous, and lymphatic drainage of the oesophagus varies depending on the location, with the upper third being supplied by the inferior thyroid artery and drained by the deep cervical lymphatics, the mid-third being supplied by aortic branches and drained by azygos branches and mediastinal lymphatics, and the lower third being supplied by the left gastric artery and drained by posterior mediastinal and coeliac veins and gastric lymphatics.
The nerve supply of the oesophagus also varies, with the upper half being supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the lower half being supplied by the oesophageal plexus of the vagus nerve. The muscularis externa of the oesophagus is composed of both smooth and striated muscle, with the composition varying depending on the location.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Gastrointestinal System
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Question 25
Incorrect
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You are working in the emergency department and are asked to take bloods from a 65-year-old man who has presented with shortness of breath and a cough. During the process of taking the patient's blood, you sustain a needlestick injury. Following your hospital's guidelines, you thoroughly irrigate the wound and inform occupational health. Upon reviewing the patient's medical records, you discover that they were diagnosed with HIV 6 years ago.
What is the primary factor that determines your risk of HIV transmission in this scenario?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: The viral load of the patient
Explanation:According to UK guidelines, it is no longer necessary to administer post-exposure prophylaxis after being exposed to a patient with an undetectable viral load in an occupational setting.
The risk of transmission is higher if the sharp object was used to access an artery or vein, if there is visible blood on the sharp, if the sharp is a hollow-bore blood-filled needle, or if the wound is deep.
Other factors listed do not impact the likelihood of HIV transmission.
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis for Viral Infections
Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is a preventive treatment given to individuals who have been exposed to a viral infection. The type of PEP given depends on the virus and the clinical situation. For hepatitis A, either human normal immunoglobulin or the hepatitis A vaccine may be used. For hepatitis B, the PEP given depends on whether the source is known to be positive for HBsAg or not. If the person exposed is a known responder to the HBV vaccine, then a booster dose should be given. If they are a non-responder, they need to have hepatitis B immune globulin and a booster vaccine. For hepatitis C, monthly PCR is recommended, and if seroconversion occurs, interferon +/- ribavirin may be given. For HIV, a combination of oral antiretrovirals should be given as soon as possible for four weeks. The risk of HIV transmission depends on the incident and the current viral load of the patient. For varicella zoster, VZIG is recommended for IgG negative pregnant women or immunosuppressed individuals. The risk of transmission for single needlestick injuries varies depending on the virus, with hepatitis B having a higher risk than hepatitis C and HIV.
Overall, PEP is an important preventive measure for individuals who have been exposed to viral infections. It is crucial to determine the appropriate PEP based on the virus and the clinical situation to ensure the best possible outcome.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- General Principles
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Question 26
Incorrect
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Which one of the following is not a branch of the subclavian artery?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Superior thyroid artery
Explanation:The branches of the subclavian artery can be remembered using the mnemonic VIT C & D, which stands for Vertebral artery, Internal thoracic, Thyrocervical trunk, Costalcervical trunk, and Dorsal scapular. It is important to note that the Superior thyroid artery is actually a branch of the external carotid artery.
The Subclavian Artery: Origin, Path, and Branches
The subclavian artery is a major blood vessel that supplies blood to the upper extremities, neck, and head. It has two branches, the left and right subclavian arteries, which arise from different sources. The left subclavian artery originates directly from the arch of the aorta, while the right subclavian artery arises from the brachiocephalic artery (trunk) when it bifurcates into the subclavian and the right common carotid artery.
From its origin, the subclavian artery travels laterally, passing between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, deep to scalenus anterior and anterior to scalenus medius. As it crosses the lateral border of the first rib, it becomes the axillary artery and is superficial within the subclavian triangle.
The subclavian artery has several branches that supply blood to different parts of the body. These branches include the vertebral artery, which supplies blood to the brain and spinal cord, the internal thoracic artery, which supplies blood to the chest wall and breast tissue, the thyrocervical trunk, which supplies blood to the thyroid gland and neck muscles, the costocervical trunk, which supplies blood to the neck and upper back muscles, and the dorsal scapular artery, which supplies blood to the muscles of the shoulder blade.
In summary, the subclavian artery is an important blood vessel that plays a crucial role in supplying blood to the upper extremities, neck, and head. Its branches provide blood to various parts of the body, ensuring proper functioning and health.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Cardiovascular System
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Question 27
Incorrect
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A 67-year-old man with a suspected ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm is brought to the emergency department. Upon arrival, the patient appears pale, cold, and clammy. His vital signs are as follows: temperature 35.3 degrees Celsius, respiratory rate 40, heart rate 116bpm, and blood pressure 90/65mmHg.
When there is a decrease in the concentration of oxygen in the blood, the inspiratory center is stimulated, and any voluntary cortical control of breathing pattern is overridden. Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors located that detect these changes?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Aortic arch
Explanation:The peripheral chemoreceptors, found in the aortic and carotid bodies, are capable of detecting alterations in the levels of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. These receptors are located in the aortic arch and at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery. However, they are not as sensitive as the central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, which monitor the cerebrospinal fluid. It is important to note that there are no peripheral chemoreceptors present in veins.
The Control of Ventilation in the Human Body
The control of ventilation in the human body is a complex process that involves various components working together to regulate the respiratory rate and depth of respiration. The respiratory centres, chemoreceptors, lung receptors, and muscles all play a role in this process. The automatic, involuntary control of respiration occurs from the medulla, which is responsible for controlling the respiratory rate and depth of respiration.
The respiratory centres consist of the medullary respiratory centre, apneustic centre, and pneumotaxic centre. The medullary respiratory centre has two groups of neurons, the ventral group, which controls forced voluntary expiration, and the dorsal group, which controls inspiration. The apneustic centre, located in the lower pons, stimulates inspiration and activates and prolongs inhalation. The pneumotaxic centre, located in the upper pons, inhibits inspiration at a certain point and fine-tunes the respiratory rate.
Ventilatory variables, such as the levels of pCO2, are the most important factors in ventilation control, while levels of O2 are less important. Peripheral chemoreceptors, located in the bifurcation of carotid arteries and arch of the aorta, respond to changes in reduced pO2, increased H+, and increased pCO2 in arterial blood. Central chemoreceptors, located in the medulla, respond to increased H+ in brain interstitial fluid to increase ventilation. It is important to note that the central receptors are not influenced by O2 levels.
Lung receptors also play a role in the control of ventilation. Stretch receptors respond to lung stretching, causing a reduced respiratory rate, while irritant receptors respond to smoke, causing bronchospasm. J (juxtacapillary) receptors are also involved in the control of ventilation. Overall, the control of ventilation is a complex process that involves various components working together to regulate the respiratory rate and depth of respiration.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Respiratory System
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Question 28
Incorrect
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Lily is a 32-year-old female who has been in a relationship for 3 years. Lily and her partner have been trying to conceive regularly for over a year without success. They have visited their doctor to arrange some tests to investigate a potential cause. What is the hormone that is released after ovulation and can be utilized as an indicator of fertility?
Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Progesterone
Explanation:To test for ovulation in women with regular cycles, Day 21 progesterone (mid-luteal cycle progesterone) is used. However, for those with irregular cycles, progesterone should be tested a week before the predicted menstruation. Ovulation is necessary for fertilization to occur, as it indicates the release of an egg.
Oestrogen and Progesterone: Their Sources and Functions
Oestrogen and progesterone are two important hormones in the female body. Oestrogen is primarily produced by the ovaries, but can also be produced by the placenta and blood via aromatase. Its functions include promoting the development of genitalia, causing the LH surge, and increasing hepatic synthesis of transport proteins. It also upregulates oestrogen, progesterone, and LH receptors, and is responsible for female fat distribution. On the other hand, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, placenta, and adrenal cortex. Its main function is to maintain the endometrium and pregnancy, as well as to thicken cervical mucous and decrease myometrial excitability. It also increases body temperature and is responsible for spiral artery development.
It is important to note that these hormones work together in regulating the menstrual cycle and preparing the body for pregnancy. Oestrogen promotes the proliferation of the endometrium, while progesterone maintains it. Without these hormones, the menstrual cycle and pregnancy would not be possible. Understanding the sources and functions of oestrogen and progesterone is crucial in diagnosing and treating hormonal imbalances and reproductive disorders.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Reproductive System
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Question 29
Incorrect
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A 27-year-old woman visits the maternity assessment unit two weeks after giving birth with complaints of perineal pain and discharge. She had a forceps-assisted vaginal delivery at 40+5 weeks and suffered a type 3a perineal tear. Her primary concern is that the wound may be infected as it appears red and inflamed when she tries to examine it with a mirror.
During the examination, the perineal wound shows signs of purulent discharge, erythematous surrounding skin, and a buried suture. Given the complexity of the repair, the consultant orders a CT scan to rule out a pelvic abscess. The CT report reveals a small fluid collection in the perineal wound and lymphadenopathy.
Based on this information, where is the likely site of lymphatic drainage?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Superficial inguinal lymph nodes
Explanation:The patient’s CT scan showed lymphadenopathy in the superficial inguinal lymph nodes, which is expected as the infection is located in the perineum. The deep inguinal lymph nodes, which drain the glans penis and clitoris, are not the primary site for perineal drainage. The medial group of external iliac lymph nodes drain the urinary bladder, membranous aspect of the urethra, cervix, and upper part of the vagina, while the internal iliac lymph nodes drain the anal canal above the pectinate line, the lower part of the rectum, the cervix, and the inferior uterus. If there were retained products of conception in the uterus causing an infection or a type 4 perineal tear involving a substantial portion of the rectum, lymphadenopathy of the internal iliac lymph nodes may be seen on the CT scan. The para-aortic lymph nodes drain the ovaries, but this is not relevant to the patient’s case as there is no indication of an ovarian pathology.
Lymphatic drainage is the process by which lymphatic vessels carry lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells, away from tissues and organs and towards lymph nodes. The lymphatic vessels that drain the skin and follow venous drainage are called superficial lymphatic vessels, while those that drain internal organs and structures follow the arteries and are called deep lymphatic vessels. These vessels eventually lead to lymph nodes, which filter and remove harmful substances from the lymph before it is returned to the bloodstream.
The lymphatic system is divided into two main ducts: the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains the right side of the head and right arm, while the thoracic duct drains everything else. Both ducts eventually drain into the venous system.
Different areas of the body have specific primary lymph node drainage sites. For example, the superficial inguinal lymph nodes drain the anal canal below the pectinate line, perineum, skin of the thigh, penis, scrotum, and vagina. The deep inguinal lymph nodes drain the glans penis, while the para-aortic lymph nodes drain the testes, ovaries, kidney, and adrenal gland. The axillary lymph nodes drain the lateral breast and upper limb, while the internal iliac lymph nodes drain the anal canal above the pectinate line, lower part of the rectum, and pelvic structures including the cervix and inferior part of the uterus. The superior mesenteric lymph nodes drain the duodenum and jejunum, while the inferior mesenteric lymph nodes drain the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper part of the rectum. Finally, the coeliac lymph nodes drain the stomach.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Haematology And Oncology
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Question 30
Incorrect
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Mr. Johnson is a 72-year-old man who was diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) 18 months ago. His disease has been stable, however he has now presented with fatigue and splenomegaly. His blood results are shown below.
Hb 85 g/dL
WCC 41 x 109 cells/L
Plts 210 x 109 cells/L
MCV 88 fl
Haptoglobin 115 mg/dL (30-200 mg/dL)
Direct Coombs test Positive
What is the most likely diagnosis?Your Answer:
Correct Answer: Warm autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
Explanation:CLL is linked to warm autoimmune haemolytic anaemia.
Complications of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia
Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow. It can lead to various complications, including anaemia, hypogammaglobulinaemia, and warm autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Patients with CLL may also experience recurrent infections due to their weakened immune system. However, one of the most severe complications of CLL is Richter’s transformation.
Richter’s transformation occurs when CLL cells transform into a high-grade, fast-growing non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. This transformation can happen when the leukaemia cells enter the lymph nodes. Patients with Richter’s transformation often become unwell very suddenly and may experience symptoms such as lymph node swelling, fever without infection, weight loss, night sweats, nausea, and abdominal pain.
It is essential for patients with CLL to be aware of the potential complications and to seek medical attention if they experience any concerning symptoms. Regular check-ups and monitoring can also help detect any changes in the condition early on, allowing for prompt treatment and management.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Haematology And Oncology
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