00
Correct
00
Incorrect
00 : 00 : 00
Session Time
00 : 00
Average Question Time ( Mins)
Retry this test Dashboard

  • Question 1 - Which of the following does NOT increase free ionised calcium levels: ...

    Correct

    • Which of the following does NOT increase free ionised calcium levels:

      Your Answer: Calcitonin

      Explanation:

      Calcium homeostasis is primarily controlled by three hormones: parathyroid hormone, activated vitamin D and calcitonin.Parathyroid hormone acts on the kidneys to increase calcium reabsorption in the distal tubule by activating Ca2+entry channels in the apical membrane and the Ca2+ATPase pump in the basolateral membrane (and to decrease phosphate reabsorption in the proximal tubule).Activated vitamin D acts to increase calcium reabsorption in the distal tubule via activation of a basolateral Ca2+ATPase pump (and to increase phosphate reabsorption).Calcitonin acts to inhibit renal reabsorption of calcium (and phosphate).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal
      57.6
      Seconds

  • Question 2 - The myocardium is responsible for creating the force with which the atrial and...

    Correct

    • The myocardium is responsible for creating the force with which the atrial and ventricular muscles contract. It is made up of myocytes, which are heart muscle cells.Which of the following statements about cardiac muscle anatomy is correct? 

      Your Answer: Cardiac myocytes have intercalated discs

      Explanation:

      Typically, granuloma has Langerhan’s cells (large multinucleated cells ) surrounded by epithelioid cell aggregates, T lymphocytes and fibroblasts.Antigen presenting monocytic cells found in the skin are known as Langerhan’s cells.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Basic Cellular Physiology
      • Physiology
      55.3
      Seconds

  • Question 3 - Regarding calcium channel blockers, which of the following statements is CORRECT: ...

    Incorrect

    • Regarding calcium channel blockers, which of the following statements is CORRECT:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Calcium channel blockers inhibit L-type voltage-sensitive calcium channels in arterial smooth muscle causing vasodilation.

      Explanation:

      Calcium channel blockers inhibit L-type voltage-sensitive calcium channels in arterial smooth muscle, causing relaxation and vasodilation (reduction in peripheral vascular resistance). They also block calcium channels within the myocardium and conducting tissues of the heart which produces a negative inotropic effect by reducing calcium influx during the plateau phase of the action potential. They have a variety of uses, including:HypertensionAnginaAtrial fibrillationMigraineCalcium channel blockers have been found to be moderately useful in the prevention of migraines. The best evidence is for this is with verapamil. This may be due to the prevention of the arteriolar constriction that is associated with migraine. They are commonly used for this elsewhere in the world but are not currently licensed for this use in the UK.The following are common side effects of all calcium-channel blockers:Abdominal painDizzinessDrowsinessFlushingHeadacheNausea and vomitingPalpitationsPeripheral oedemaSkin reactionsTachycardiaVerapamil is highly negatively inotropic and reduces cardiac output, slows the heart rate and may impair atrioventricular conduction. It may precipitate heart failure, exacerbate conduction disorders, and cause hypotension at high doses and should not be used with beta-blockers. Nifedipine has less myocardial effects than verapamil and has no antiarrhythmic properties but has more influence on the vessels. Nimodipine is used solely for the prevention and treatment of vascular spasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 4 - Digoxin exhibits its positive inotropic effect by which of the following mechanisms: ...

    Incorrect

    • Digoxin exhibits its positive inotropic effect by which of the following mechanisms:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Inhibits the Na+/K+ pump on the myocyte membrane

      Explanation:

      Cardiac glycosides (e.g. digoxin) slow the removal of Ca2+from the cell by inhibiting the membrane Na+pump (Na+/K+ATPase) which generates the Na+gradient required for driving the export of Ca2+by Na+/Ca2+exchange; consequently the removal of Ca2+from the myocyte is slowed and more Ca2+is available for the next contraction.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 5 - Which one of these equations best defines lung compliance? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which one of these equations best defines lung compliance?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Change in volume / change in pressure

      Explanation:

      Lung compliance is defined as change in volume per unit change in distending pressure. Lung compliance is calculated using the equation:Lung compliance = ΔV / ΔPWhere:ΔV is the change in volumeΔP is the change in pleural pressure.Static compliance is lung compliance in periods without gas flow, and is calculated using the equation:Static compliance = VT / Pplat − PEEPWhere:VT = tidal volumePplat = plateau pressurePEEP = positive end-expiratory pressure

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Respiratory Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 6 - A patient who was put on low molecular weight heparin for suspected DVT...

    Incorrect

    • A patient who was put on low molecular weight heparin for suspected DVT and was scheduled for an ultrasound after the weekend, arrives at the emergency department with significant hematemesis. Which of the following medications can be used as a heparin reversal agent:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Protamine sulfate

      Explanation:

      The management of bleeding in a patient receiving heparin depends upon the location and severity of bleeding, the underlying thromboembolic risk, and the current aPTT (for heparin) or anti-factor Xa activity (for LMW heparin). As an example, a patient with minor skin bleeding in the setting of a mechanical heart valve (high thromboembolic risk) and a therapeutic aPTT may continue heparin therapy, whereas a patient with major intracerebral bleeding in the setting of venous thromboembolism several months prior who is receiving heparin bridging perioperatively may require immediate heparin discontinuation and reversal with protamine sulphate. If haemorrhage occurs it is usually sufficient to withdraw unfractionated or low molecular weight heparin, but if rapid reversal of the effects of the heparin is required, protamine sulphate is a specific antidote (but only partially reverses the effects of low molecular weight heparins). Clinician judgment and early involvement of the appropriate consulting specialists is advised.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 7 - A patient complains of stomach ache. You see a midline scar in the...

    Incorrect

    • A patient complains of stomach ache. You see a midline scar in the epigastric area when you examine the abdomen. Upon further interrogation, the patient reveals that she had a subtotal gastrectomy for recurring stomach ulcers several years ago. The stomach mucosa secretes a variety of vital compounds, and her ability to secrete some of these molecules has been harmed as a result of his surgery.The stomach mucous neck cells secrete which of the following substances?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Bicarbonate

      Explanation:

      Foveolar cells, also known as gastric mucous-neck cells, are cells that line the stomach mucosa and are found in the necks of the gastric pits. Mucus and bicarbonate are produced by these cells, which prevent the stomach from digesting itself. At pH 4, the mucous allows the acid to penetrate the lining, while below pH 4, the acid is unable to do so. Viscous fingering is the term for this procedure.The table below summarizes the many cell types found in the stomach, as well as the substances secreted by each cell type and the function of the secretion:Cell type/ Substance secreted/ Function of secretionParietal cells/ Hydrochloric acid/ Kills microbes and activates pepsinogenParietal cells/ Intrinsic factor/Binds to vitamin B12 and facilitates its absorptionChief cells/ Pepsinogen/ Protein digestionChief cells/ Gastric lipase/ Fat digestionG-cells/ Gastrin/ Stimulates gastric acid secretionEnterochromaffin-like cells (ECL cells) /Histamine/ Stimulates gastric acid secretionMucous-neck cells/ Mucous and bicarbonate/ Protects stomach epithelium from acidD-cells/ Somatostatin/ Inhibits gastric acid secretion

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 8 - A possible diagnosis of Cushing's illness is being investigated in an overweight patient...

    Incorrect

    • A possible diagnosis of Cushing's illness is being investigated in an overweight patient with resistant hypertension. A CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) test is scheduled.Which of the following statements about corticotropin-releasing hormone is correct? 

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: It is produced by cells within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

      Explanation:

      Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a neurotransmitter and peptide hormone. It is generated by cells in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and released into the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system at the median eminence through neurosecretory terminals of these neurons. Stress causes the release of CRH.The CRH is carried to the anterior pituitary through the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system, where it activates corticotrophs to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Cortisol, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and DHEA are all produced in response to ACTH.Excessive CRH production causes the size and quantity of corticotrophs in the anterior pituitary to expand, which can lead to the creation of a corticotrope tumour that generates too much ACTH.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 9 - By what mechanism does Vibrio cholerae causes diarrhoea? ...

    Incorrect

    • By what mechanism does Vibrio cholerae causes diarrhoea?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Increases Cl- secretory channels in crypt cells

      Explanation:

      Cholera is a severe diarrheal illness caused by the Vibrio cholerae bacteria infecting the bowel. Ingesting cholera-infected food or drink is the a way to contract the disease. In the intestinal crypt cells, the toxigenic bacterium Vibrio cholera activates adenylate cyclase and raises cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP stimulates the Cl-secretory channels in crypt cells, resulting in the secretion of chloride with sodium ions and water. The toxin it produces causes the body to secrete massive amounts of water, resulting in diarrhoea and significant fluid and electrolyte loss.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 10 - If the ejection fraction increases, there will be a decrease in: ...

    Incorrect

    • If the ejection fraction increases, there will be a decrease in:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: End-systolic volume

      Explanation:

      An increase in ejection fraction means that a higher fraction of the end-diastolic volume is ejected in the stroke volume (e.g. because of the administration of a positive inotropic agent). When this situation occurs, the volume remaining in the ventricle after systole, the end-systolic volume, will be reduced. Cardiac output, stroke volume, and mean arterial pressure will be increased.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 11 - A 62-year-old female complains of pain in her right upper quadrant. An abdominal ultrasound...

    Incorrect

    • A 62-year-old female complains of pain in her right upper quadrant. An abdominal ultrasound is conducted, and a big gallstone is discovered. The radiologist who performs the scan speaks with you about the physiology of the gallbladder and biliary tract.During a 24-hour period, how much bile does the gallbladder produce?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 400-800 ml

      Explanation:

      The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, which is produced by the liver. In a 24-hour period, around 400 to 800 mL of bile is generated. The breakdown of fats into fatty acids, the removal of waste materials, and cholesterol homeostasis are all crucial functions of bile.Bile is created on a constant basis, however it is only necessary after a meal has been consumed. The elimination of water and ions concentrates bile in the gallbladder, which is subsequently stored for later use. Food induces the release of the hormone cholecystokinin from the duodenum, the contraction of the gallbladder, and the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi. The bile then enters the duodenum.Bile acids have a hydrophobic and hydrophilic area, making them amphipathic. Bile acids’ amphipathic nature allows them to perform the following crucial functions:Emulsification of lipid aggregates increases the surface area of fat and makes it easier for lipases to digest it.Lipid solubilization and transport: solubilizes lipids by creating micelles, which are lipid clumps that float in water.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 12 - Which of the following is an action of glucagon: ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is an action of glucagon:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Stimulates glycogenolysis

      Explanation:

      Glucagon is a peptide hormone that is produced and secreted by alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. The main physiological role of glucagon is to stimulate hepatic glucose output, thereby leading to increases in glycaemia. It provides the major counter-regulatory mechanism to insulin in maintaining glucose homeostasis.Hypoglycaemia is the principal stimulus for the secretion of glucagon but may also be used as an antidote in beta-blocker overdose and in anaphylaxis in patients on beta-blockers that fail to respond to adrenaline. Glucagon then causes:GlycogenolysisGluconeogenesisLipolysis in adipose tissueThe secretion of glucagon is also stimulated by:AdrenalineCholecystokininArginineAlanineAcetylcholineThe secretion of glucagon is inhibited by:InsulinSomatostatinIncreased free fatty acidsIncreased urea productionGlycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate. The free energy released by this process is used to form ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is inhibited by glucagon, and glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated so that when one cell pathway is activated, the other is inactive and vice versa.Glucagon has a minor effect of enhancing lipolysis in adipose tissue. Lipolysis is the breakdown of lipids and involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids. It makes fatty acids available for oxidation.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 13 - A 68-year-old man is being treated with digoxin for atrial fibrillation. When serum...

    Incorrect

    • A 68-year-old man is being treated with digoxin for atrial fibrillation. When serum digoxin levels are above the therapeutic range, he is at highest risk for developing digoxin toxicity if he also develops which of the following?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Hypokalaemia

      Explanation:

      Predisposing factors for digoxin toxicity include hypoxia, hypercalcaemia, hypokalaemia and hypomagnesaemia There should also be care taken in the elderly who are particularly susceptible to digoxin toxicity. Hypokalaemia may be precipitated by use of diuretics. Hyponatremia can result in the development of other pathological disturbances, but it does not make digoxin toxicity worse.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 14 - Regarding alteplase, which of the following statements is INCORRECT: ...

    Incorrect

    • Regarding alteplase, which of the following statements is INCORRECT:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Alteplase is commonly associated with hypotensive effects.

      Explanation:

      Alteplase is a recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA), a naturally occurring fibrin-specific enzyme that has selectivity for activation of fibrin-bound plasminogen. It has a short half-life of 3 – 4  minutes and must be given by continuous intravenous infusion but is not associated with antigenic or hypotensive effects, and can be used in patients when recent streptococcal infections or recent use of streptokinase contraindicates the use of streptokinase.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 15 - Captopril should not be used if you have any of the following conditions:...

    Incorrect

    • Captopril should not be used if you have any of the following conditions:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Renal artery stenosis

      Explanation:

      Contraindications indications of Captopril include:- Bilateral renal artery stenosis- Hypersensitivity to ACE inhibitors- Anuria- History of ACEI-induced angioedema- Hereditary or idiopathic angioedema- Co-administration of Neprilysin inhibitors (e.g., sacubitril) with ACE inhibitors may increase angioedema risk; do not administer ACE inhibitors within 36 hours of switching to or from sacubitril/valsartan.If ACE inhibitors are used, they should be initiated only under specialist supervision and renal function should be monitored regularly. ACE inhibitors should also be used with particular caution in patients who may have undiagnosed and clinically silent renovascular disease. This includes patients with peripheral vascular disease or those with severe generalised atherosclerosis.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 16 - The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis due to excessive antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion is...

    Incorrect

    • The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis due to excessive antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion is diagnosed in a male patient with a history of recurrent hyponatraemia.Which of the following produces ADH?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Hypothalamus

      Explanation:

      Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), commonly known as vasopressin, is a peptide hormone that controls how much water the body retains.It is produced in the magnocellular and parvocellular neurosecretory cells of the paraventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus from a prohormone precursor. It is subsequently carried to the posterior pituitary via axons and stored in vesicles.The secretion of ADH from the posterior pituitary is regulated by numerous mechanisms:Increased plasma osmolality: Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect an increase in osmolality and trigger ADH release.Stretch receptors in the atrial walls and big veins detect a decrease in atrial pressure as a result of this (cardiopulmonary baroreceptors). ADH release is generally inhibited by atrial receptor firing, but when the atrial receptors are stretched, the firing reduces and ADH release is promoted.Hypotension causes baroreceptor firing to diminish, resulting in increased sympathetic activity and ADH release.An increase in angiotensin II stimulates angiotensin II receptors in the hypothalamus, causing ADH production to increase.The main sites of action for ADH are:The kidney is made up of two parts. ADH’s main job is to keep the extracellular fluid volume under control. It increases permeability to water by acting on the renal collecting ducts via V2 Receptors (via a camp-dependent mechanism). This leads to a decrease in urine production, an increase in blood volume, and an increase in arterial pressure as a result.Vascular system: Vasoconstriction is a secondary function of ADH. ADH causes vasoconstriction via binding to V1 Receptors on vascular smooth muscle (via the IP3 signal transduction pathway). An increase in arterial pressure occurs as a result of this.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 17 - The following statements concerning lung compliance is true EXCEPT? ...

    Incorrect

    • The following statements concerning lung compliance is true EXCEPT?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Lung compliance is described by the equation: C = ∆ P/ ∆V, where C = compliance, P = pressure, and V = volume

      Explanation:

      Lung compliance is the change in volume per unit change in distending pressure. It is calculated using the equation:Lung compliance = ΔV / ΔPWhere:ΔV is the change in volumeΔP is the change in pleural pressure.Lung compliance is inversely proportional to stiffness and elastance. It comprises static (no airflow) and dynamic (during continuous breathing) components. It is the slope of the pressure-volume curve.Lung compliance describes the distensibility of the lungs and the chest wall.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Respiratory Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 18 - A 29 year old patient with known inflammatory bowel disease presents to ED...

    Incorrect

    • A 29 year old patient with known inflammatory bowel disease presents to ED with surgical complications following his recent ileocaecal resection. Removal of the terminal ileum may result in the malabsorption of which of the following:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Vitamin B12

      Explanation:

      On ingestion, vitamin B12 is bound to R protein found in saliva and gastric secretions, which protects it from digestion in the stomach. Intrinsic factor is secreted by gastric parietal cells. Receptors for the IF-B12 complex are present in the membrane of epithelial cells of the terminal ileum, which bind the complex and allow uptake of vitamin B12 across the apical membrane by endocytosis. Vitamin B12 is then transported across the basal membrane into the portal blood where it is bound to transcobalamin II and processed by the liver. In pernicious anaemia, there are autoantibodies against gastric parietal cells and intrinsic factor, resulting in vitamin B12 deficiency anaemia.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 19 - The last two segments of the nephrons are the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)...

    Incorrect

    • The last two segments of the nephrons are the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct (CD).Which cell reabsorbs sodium more in the late DCT and CD?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Principal cells

      Explanation:

      The main Na+ reabsorbing cells in the late distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are the principal cells. These make up the majority of the tubular cells. The exchange is driven by the Na.K.ATPase pumps on the basolateral membrane.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 20 - Which of the following corticosteroids has the most potent mineralocorticoid effect: ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following corticosteroids has the most potent mineralocorticoid effect:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Fludrocortisone

      Explanation:

      Fludrocortisone has the most potent mineralocorticosteroid activity, making it ideal for mineralocorticoid replacement in adrenal insufficiency.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 21 - An ambulance transports a 40-year-old man to the hospital. He ingested a significant...

    Incorrect

    • An ambulance transports a 40-year-old man to the hospital. He ingested a significant amount of aspirin.In the early stages of an aspirin overdose, which form of acid-base problem should you anticipate? 

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Respiratory alkalosis

      Explanation:

      When you take too much aspirin, you have a mix of respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis. Respiratory centre stimulation produces hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis in the early phases. The direct acid actions of aspirin tend to create a higher anion gap metabolic acidosis in the latter phases.Below summarizes some of the most common reasons of acid-base abnormalities:Respiratory alkalosis: – Hyperventilation (e.g. anxiety, pain, fever)- Pulmonary embolism- Pneumothorax- CNS disorders (e.g. CVA, SAH, encephalitis)- High altitude- Pregnancy- Early stages of aspirin overdoseRespiratory acidosis:- COPD- Life-threatening asthma- Pulmonary oedema- Respiratory depression (e.g. opiates, benzodiazepines)- Neuromuscular disease (e.g. Guillain-Barré syndrome, muscular dystrophy- Incorrect ventilator settings (hypoventilation)- ObesityMetabolic alkalosis:- Vomiting- Cardiac arrest- Multi-organ failure- Cystic fibrosis- Potassium depletion (e.g. diuretic usage)- Cushing’s syndrome- Conn’s syndromeMetabolic acidosis (with raised anion gap):- Lactic acidosis (e.g. hypoxaemia, shock, sepsis, infarction)- Ketoacidosis (e.g. diabetes, starvation, alcohol excess)- Renal failure- Poisoning (e.g. late stages of aspirin overdose, methanol, ethylene glycol)Metabolic acidosis (with normal anion gap):- Renal tubular acidosis- Diarrhoea- Ammonium chloride ingestion- Adrenal insufficiency

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 22 - The role of the juxtaglomerular (granular) cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus is: ...

    Incorrect

    • The role of the juxtaglomerular (granular) cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus is:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Production of renin

      Explanation:

      Juxtaglomerular cells synthesise renin. These cells are specialised smooth muscle cells that are located in the walls of the afferent arterioles, and there are some in the efferent arterioles.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 23 - Which of the following is NOT a benefit of low molecular weight heparin...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is NOT a benefit of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) over unfractionated heparin therapy:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Its effects can be rapidly and completely reversed with protamine sulfate.

      Explanation:

      Advantages of LMWHGreater ability to inhibit factor Xa directly, interacting less with platelets and so may have a lesser tendency to cause bleedingGreater bioavailability and longer half-life in plasma making once daily subcutaneous administration possibleMore predictable dose response avoiding the need for routine anticoagulant monitoringLower associated risk of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia or of osteoporosis

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 24 - Insulin is produced by which of the following pancreatic cells: ...

    Incorrect

    • Insulin is produced by which of the following pancreatic cells:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: β cells

      Explanation:

      Insulin is produced by beta cells, located centrally within the islets of Langerhans, in the endocrine tissues of the pancreas. Insulin is a polypeptide hormone consisting of two short chains (A and B) linked by disulphide bonds. Proinsulin is synthesised as a single-chain peptide. Within storage granules, a connecting peptide (C peptide) is removed by proteases to yield insulin. Insulin release is stimulated initially during eating by the parasympathetic nervous system and gut hormones such as secretin, but most output is driven by the rise in plasma glucose concentration that occurs after a meal. The effects of insulin are mediated by the receptor tyrosine kinase.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 25 - Regarding the management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), insulin should initially be given: ...

    Incorrect

    • Regarding the management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), insulin should initially be given:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: At a concentration of 1 unit/mL at a fixed rate of 0.1 units/kg/hour

      Explanation:

      An intravenous insulin infusion should be started at a concentration of 1 unit/mL, at a fixed rate of 0.1 units/kg/hour. Established subcutaneous long-acting insulin therapy should be continued concomitantly. Blood ketone and blood glucose concentrations should be checked hourly and the insulin infusion rate adjusted accordingly. Blood ketone concentration should fall by at least 0.5 mmol/litre/hour and blood glucose concentration should fall by at least 3 mmol/litre/hour.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 26 - A 50-year-old man, known hypertensive on amlodipine has been visiting his GP with...

    Incorrect

    • A 50-year-old man, known hypertensive on amlodipine has been visiting his GP with symptoms of headache, tiredness, and muscle weakness. His blood test today shows a low potassium level of 2.8 mmol/L, and a slightly raised sodium level at 147 mmol/L.What is the MOST LIKELY diagnosis?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Conn’s syndrome

      Explanation:

      When there are excessive levels of aldosterone independent of the renin-angiotensin aldosterone axis, primary hyperaldosteronism occurs. Secondary hyperaldosteronism occurs due to high renin levels.Causes of primary hyperaldosteronism include:Conn’s syndromeAdrenal hyperplasiaAdrenal cancerFamilial aldosteronismCauses of secondary hyperaldosteronism include:Renal vasoconstrictionOedematous disordersDrugs – diureticsObstructive renal artery diseaseAlthough patients are usually asymptomatic, when clinical features are present, classically hyperaldosteronism presents with:HypokalaemiaSodium levels can be normal or slightly raisedHypertensionMetabolic alkalosisLess common, clinical features are:LethargyHeadachesIntermittent paraesthesiaPolyuria and polydipsiaMuscle weakness (from persistent hypokalaemia)Tetany and paralysis (rare)

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 27 - Which of these cell types in the stomach releases pepsinogen? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of these cell types in the stomach releases pepsinogen?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Chief cells

      Explanation:

      The gastric chief cells in the stomach wall releases pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is a proenzyme. It mixes with hydrochloric acid in the stomach and is converted to pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides aiding protein digestion.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 28 - Which of the following factors decreases insulin secretion: ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following factors decreases insulin secretion:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Catecholamines

      Explanation:

      Factors that increase insulin secretion:↑ Blood glucose↑ Amino acids↑ Fatty acidsGlucagonSecretinAcetylcholineFactors that decrease insulin secretion:↓ Blood glucoseSomatostatinCatecholamines

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 29 - What is the earliest physiological effect that causes postural hypotension: ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the earliest physiological effect that causes postural hypotension:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: A fall in central venous pressure

      Explanation:

      When autonomic reflexes are impaired or intravascular volume is markedly depleted, a significant reduction in blood pressure occurs upon standing, a phenomenon termed Postural Hypotension (orthostatic hypotension). Orthostatic hypotension can cause dizziness, syncope, and even angina or stroke. When autonomic reflexes are impaired, blood pressure falls progressively after standing because the gravitational pooling of blood in the legs cannot be compensated by sympathetic vasoconstriction.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 30 - Which of the following statements about vitamin B12 absorption is TRUE: ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following statements about vitamin B12 absorption is TRUE:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: On ingestion, vitamin B12 is bound to R protein which protects it from digestion in the stomach.

      Explanation:

      The substance intrinsic factor,essential for absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum, issecreted by the parietal cells along with the secretion ofhydrochloric acid. When the acid-producing parietalcells of the stomach are destroyed, which frequentlyoccurs in chronic gastritis, the person develops not onlyachlorhydria (lack of stomach acid secretion) but oftenalso pernicious anaemia because of failure of maturationof the red blood cells in the absence of vitamin B12 stimulation of the bone marrow.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Gastrointestinal
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 31 - A 39-year-old woman is feeling unwell one week after a parathyroid surgery.Which of...

    Incorrect

    • A 39-year-old woman is feeling unwell one week after a parathyroid surgery.Which of the following stimulates release of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Increased plasma phosphate concentration

      Explanation:

      PTH is synthesised and released from the chief cells of the four parathyroid glands located behind the thyroid gland.It is a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids and it controls free calcium in the body.The following stimuli causes release of PTH:Increased plasma phosphate concentrationDecreased plasma calcium concentrationPTH release is inhibited by:Normal or increased plasma calcium concentrationHypomagnesaemiaThe main actions of PTH are:Increases plasma calcium concentrationDecreases plasma phosphate concentrationIncreases osteoclastic activity (increasing calcium and phosphate resorption from bone)Increases renal tubular reabsorption of calciumDecreases renal phosphate reabsorptionIncreases renal conversion of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (via stimulation of 1-alpha hydroxylase)Increases calcium and phosphate absorption in the small intestine (indirectly via increased 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 32 - When treating diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), glucose should be given together with insulin as...

    Incorrect

    • When treating diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), glucose should be given together with insulin as soon as the blood glucose concentration falls below 14 mmol/L in the form of:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 10% glucose intravenous infusion at a rate of 125 mL/hour

      Explanation:

      In addition to the sodium chloride 0.9 percent infusion, glucose 10% should be given intravenously (into a large vein with a large-gauge needle) at a rate of 125 mL/hour once blood glucose concentration falls below 14 mmol/litre.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 33 - Digoxin is contraindicated in all of the following EXCEPT for: ...

    Incorrect

    • Digoxin is contraindicated in all of the following EXCEPT for:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Asthma

      Explanation:

      Digoxin is contraindicated in:Supraventricular arrhythmias associated with accessory conduction pathways e.g. Wolff-Parkinson-White syndromeVentricular tachycardia or fibrillationHeart conduction problems e.g. second degree or intermittent complete heart blockHypertrophic cardiomyopathy (unless concomitant atrial fibrillation and heart failure but should be used with caution)

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 34 - Which of the following is NOT a typical electrolyte disturbance caused by furosemide:...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is NOT a typical electrolyte disturbance caused by furosemide:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Hypercalcaemia

      Explanation:

      Adverse effects of loop diuretics include:Mild gastrointestinal disturbances, pancreatitis and hepatic encephalopathyHyperglycaemiaAcute urinary retentionWater and electrolyte imbalanceHyponatraemia, hypocalcaemia, hypokalaemia, hypomagnesaemia, hypochloraemiaHypotension, hypovolaemia, dehydration, and venous thromboembolismMetabolic alkalosisHyperuricaemiaBlood disorders (bone marrow suppression, thrombocytopenia, and leucopenia)Visual disturbance, tinnitus and deafnessHypersensitivity reactions

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 35 - Insulin is a very important peptide hormone produced by the islets of Langerhans...

    Incorrect

    • Insulin is a very important peptide hormone produced by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.Insulin is synthesised by which of the following cell types within the islets of Langerhans? Select ONE answer only.

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Beta cells

      Explanation:

      Insulin is produced by beta cells, located centrally within the islets of Langerhans, in the endocrine tissues of the pancreas. Insulin is a polypeptide hormone consisting of two short chains (A and B) linked by disulphide bonds. Proinsulin is synthesised as a single-chain peptide. Within storage granules, a connecting peptide (C peptide) is removed by proteases to yield insulin. Insulin release is stimulated initially during eating by the parasympathetic nervous system and gut hormones such as secretin, but most output is driven by the rise in plasma glucose concentration that occurs after a meal. The effects of insulin are mediated by the receptor tyrosine kinase.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 36 - The neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is either eliminated or deactivated after the...

    Incorrect

    • The neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is either eliminated or deactivated after the postsynaptic cell responds to the neurotransmitter.Which of the following enzymes catalyses the breakdown of noradrenaline?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)

      Explanation:

      The neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is either eliminated or deactivated after the post-synaptic cell responds to the neurotransmitter. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways:Re-uptakeBreakdownDiffusionSerotonin is an example of a neurotransmitter that is uptake. Serotonin is absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron via the serotonin transporter (SERT), which is found in the presynaptic membrane. Re-uptake neurotransmitters are either recycled by repackaging into vesicles or broken down by enzymes.Specific enzymes found in the synaptic cleft can also break down neurotransmitters. The following enzymes are examples of these enzymes:Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) catalyses the acetylcholine breakdown (ACh)The enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) catalyses the breakdown of catecholamines like adrenaline , dopamine and noradrenaline. The breakdown of catecholamines, as well as other monoamines like serotonin, tyramine, and tryptamine, is catalysed by monoamine oxidases (MOA).Diffusion of neurotransmitters into nearby locations can also be used to eliminate them.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Basic Cellular Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 37 - Oedema can occur as a result of any of the following WITH THE...

    Incorrect

    • Oedema can occur as a result of any of the following WITH THE EXCEPTION OF:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Increased interstitial hydrostatic pressure

      Explanation:

      Oedema is defined as a palpable swelling produced by the expansion of the interstitial fluid volume. A variety of clinical conditions are associated with the development of oedema, including heart failure, cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome. The development of oedema requires an alteration in capillary dynamics in a direction that favours an increase in net filtration and also inadequate removal of the additional filtered fluid by lymphatic drainage. Oedema may form in response to an elevation in capillary hydraulic pressure (which increases the delta hydraulic pressure) or increased capillary permeability, or it can be due to disruption of the endothelial glycocalyx, decreased interstitial compliance, a lower plasma oncotic pressure (which reduces the delta oncotic pressure), or a combination of these changes. Oedema can also be induced by lymphatic obstruction since the fluid that is normally filtered is not returned to the systemic circulation.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 38 - Glomerular filtration rate can be calculated using any substance that: ...

    Incorrect

    • Glomerular filtration rate can be calculated using any substance that:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: is freely filtered and neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the nephron

      Explanation:

      Clearance of a substance can provide an accurate estimate of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) provided that the substance is:freely filterednot reabsorbed in the nephronnot secreted in the nephronnot synthesised or metabolised by the kidney

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 39 - A 54-year-old woman presents with polyuria and polydipsia. She is known to suffer...

    Incorrect

    • A 54-year-old woman presents with polyuria and polydipsia. She is known to suffer from bipolar disorder, which has been well controlled by the use of lithium for many years.What is the SINGLE most likely diagnosis?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

      Explanation:

      Diabetes insipidus is the inability to produce concentrated urine. It is characterised by the presence of excessive thirst, polyuria and polydipsia. There are two distinct types of diabetes insipidus:Cranial (central) diabetes insipidus and;Nephrogenic diabetes insipidusCranial diabetes insipidus is caused by a deficiency of vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone). Patients with cranial diabetes insipidus can have a urine output as high as 10-15 litres per 24 hours, but adequate fluid intake allows most patients to maintain normonatraemia. 30% of cases are idiopathic, and a further 30% are secondary to head injuries. Other causes include neurosurgery, brain tumours, meningitis, granulomatous disease (e.g. sarcoidosis) and drugs, such as naloxone and phenytoin. A very rare inherited form also exists that is associated with diabetes mellitus, optic atrophy, nerve deafness and bladder atonia.Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is caused by renal resistance to the action of vasopressin. As with cranial diabetes insipidus, urine output is markedly elevated. Serum sodium levels can be maintained by secondary polydipsia or can be elevated. Causes of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus include chronic renal disease, metabolic disorders (e.g. hypercalcaemia and hypokalaemia) and drugs, including long-term lithium usage and demeclocycline.In view of the history of long-term lithium use, in this case, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is the most likely diagnosis.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 40 - What is the mechanism of action of captopril: ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the mechanism of action of captopril:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor

      Explanation:

      Captopril is an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, which inhibits the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 41 - Where is angiotensin I primarily converted to angiotensin II: ...

    Incorrect

    • Where is angiotensin I primarily converted to angiotensin II:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Lungs

      Explanation:

      Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II by the removal of two C-terminal residues by the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). This primarily occurs in the lungs, although it does also occur to a lesser degree in endothelial cells and renal epithelial cells.The main actions of angiotensin II are:Vasoconstriction of vascular smooth muscle (resulting in increased blood pressure)Vasoconstriction of the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus (resulting in an increased filtration fraction and preserved glomerular filtration rate)Stimulation of aldosterone release from the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortexStimulation of anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin) release from the posterior pituitaryStimulation of thirst via the hypothalamusActs on the Na+/H+ exchanger in the proximal tubule of the kidney to stimulate Na+reabsorption and H+excretion

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Renal
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 42 - Regarding hypernatraemia, which of the following statements is INCORRECT: ...

    Incorrect

    • Regarding hypernatraemia, which of the following statements is INCORRECT:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: In acute severe hypernatraemia, seizures and intracranial vascular haemorrhage can occur as a result of brain cell lysis.

      Explanation:

      Acute severe hypernatraemia is a medical emergency and requires inpatient management in a high dependency setting. Seizures and intracranial vascular haemorrhage as a result of brain cell crenation can occur. The cause is most commonly excessive water loss and the key aspect of treatment is aggressive fluid replacement (typically with normal saline as this is relatively hypotonic). If urine osmolality is low, diabetes insipidus (DI )should be considered and a trial of synthetic ADH given. In patients with known DI, it is essential to ensure synthetic ADH is given parenterally and that close fluid balance is observed.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 43 - A lung function test is being performed on a male patient. For this...

    Incorrect

    • A lung function test is being performed on a male patient. For this patient, which of the following volumes for functional residual capacity is considered a normal result?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 2.0 L

      Explanation:

      The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a single breath is known as functional residual capacity (FRC). It is calculated by combining the expiratory reserve volume and residual volume. In a 70 kg, average-sized male, a normal functional residual capacity is approximately 2100 mL.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Physiology
      • Respiratory Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 44 - Vitamin D is a group of secosteroids that play a role in calcium...

    Incorrect

    • Vitamin D is a group of secosteroids that play a role in calcium and phosphate control. Vitamin D's hormonally active metabolite is 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.Which enzyme hydroxylates 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to form 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol? 

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: 1-alpha-hydroxylase

      Explanation:

      The hormone-active metabolite of vitamin D is 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (commonly known as calcitriol). Its activities raise calcium and phosphate levels in the bloodstream.In the presence of UVB light, 7-dehydrocholesterol is converted to cholecalciferol in the epidermal layer of the skin, resulting in 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.Cholecalciferol is then converted to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in the endoplasmic reticulum of liver hepatocytes by 25-hydroxylase (calcifediol).Finally, 1-alpha-hydroxylase converts 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in the kidney. The key regulatory point in the formation of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol is 1-alpha-hydroxylase, which is induced by parathyroid hormone or hypophosphatemia.The following are the primary effects of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol:Calcium and phosphate absorption in the small intestine is increased.Calcium reabsorption in the kidneys is increased.Increases phosphate reabsorption in the kidneys.Increases the action of osteoclastic bacteria (increasing calcium and phosphate resorption from bone)Inhibits the action of 1-alpha-hydroxylase in the kidneys (negative feedback)

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 45 - You review an 83-year-old woman who has stage 5 chronic kidney disease. She...

    Incorrect

    • You review an 83-year-old woman who has stage 5 chronic kidney disease. She has a number of electrolyte problems.Which ONE of the following decreases the renal reabsorption of phosphate?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Parathyroid hormone

      Explanation:

      Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. It is the principal controller of free calcium in the body.The main actions of parathyroid hormone are:Increases plasma calcium concentrationDecreases plasma phosphate concentrationIncreases osteoclastic activity (increasing calcium and phosphate resorption from bone)Increases renal tubular reabsorption of calciumDecreases renal phosphate reabsorptionIncreases renal conversion of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (via stimulation of 1-alpha hydroxylase)Increases calcium and phosphate absorption in the small intestine (indirectly via increased 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 46 - Pressure across the wall of a flexible tube (the transmural pressure) increases wall...

    Incorrect

    • Pressure across the wall of a flexible tube (the transmural pressure) increases wall tension and extends it.Which law best describes transmural pressure?

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Laplace’s law

      Explanation:

      The transmural pressure (pressure across the wall of a flexible tube) can be described by Laplace’s law which states that:Transmural pressure = (Tw) / rWhere:T = Wall tensionw = Wall thicknessr = The radiusA small bubble with the same wall tension as a larger bubble will contain higher pressure and will collapse into the larger bubble if the two meet and join.Fick’s law describes the rate of diffusion in a solutionPoiseuille’s law is used to calculate volume of flow rate in laminar flowDarcy’s law describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium.Starling’s law describes cardiac haemodynamics as it relates to myocyte contractility and stretch.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Basic Cellular Physiology
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 47 - Glucagon is contraindicated in which of the following: ...

    Incorrect

    • Glucagon is contraindicated in which of the following:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Pheochromocytoma

      Explanation:

      Glucagon is contraindicated in pheochromocytoma.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 48 - What is the mechanism of action of captopril: ...

    Incorrect

    • What is the mechanism of action of captopril:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Inhibition of the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II

      Explanation:

      Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) e.g. captopril inhibit the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, and thus have a vasodilatory effect, lowering both arterial and venous resistance. The cardiac output increases and, because the renovascular resistance falls, there is an increase in renal blood flow. This latter effect, together with reduced aldosterone release, increases Na+ and H2O excretion, contracting the blood volume and reducing venous return to the heart.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 49 - Which of the following is NOT a typical effect caused by adrenaline: ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is NOT a typical effect caused by adrenaline:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Bronchoconstriction

      Explanation:

      Actions of adrenaline:Cardiovascular system- Increased rate and force of cardiac contraction- Vasoconstriction of vessels in skin, mucous membranes and splanchnic bed- Vasodilation of skeletal muscle vessels- Increased cardiac output and blood pressureRespiratory system- Bronchodilation- Increased ventilation rateGastrointestinal system- Smooth muscle relaxation- Contraction of sphincters- Metabolism- Decreased insulin release- Increased glucagon release- Increased thermogenesis- Increased glycolysis- Increased lipolysisEye- Pupillary dilation

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Endocrine
      • Physiology
      0
      Seconds

  • Question 50 - Which of the following is NOT a pharmacological effect of beta-blockers: ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is NOT a pharmacological effect of beta-blockers:

      Your Answer:

      Correct Answer: Reduced AV conduction time

      Explanation:

      Effects of beta-blockers:Cardiovascular system: Reduce blood pressureReduce heart rate, contractility and cardiac outputIncrease AV conduction time, refractoriness and suppress automaticityEye:Reduce intraocular pressureRespiratory system:Cause bronchoconstriction

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Cardiovascular
      • Pharmacology
      0
      Seconds

SESSION STATS - PERFORMANCE PER SPECIALTY

Physiology (2/2) 100%
Renal (1/1) 100%
Basic Cellular Physiology (1/1) 100%
Passmed
Retry this test Dashboard