00
Correct
00
Incorrect
00 : 00 : 00
Session Time
00 : 00
Average Question Time ( Secs)
  • Question 1 - Whose work on imprinting had a significant impact on the field of attachment?...

    Correct

    • Whose work on imprinting had a significant impact on the field of attachment?

      Your Answer: Lorenz

      Explanation:

      Imprinting – A Rapid, Unreinforced, Irreversible Attachment in Animals and Humans

      Imprinting is a fascinating phenomenon observed in some animals and humans, where a phase-sensitive attachment is formed towards the first conspicuous object seen after birth of hatching. Konrad Lorenz’s classic experiment with Greylag geese demonstrated that imprinting consists of three stages – following response, attachment development, and sexual preference formation. Imprinting is a rapid process that can occur within minutes, and it does not require any reinforcement to happen. It also occurs during a clearly defined period known as the critical period, and once it happens, it is irreversible.

      Imprinting has been observed in various species, including birds, mammals, and even humans. In humans, imprinting can occur during the early stages of life and can influence social and emotional development. For example, infants may develop an attachment towards their primary caregiver, which can shape their future relationships and social interactions.

      Overall, imprinting is a fascinating and complex phenomenon that highlights the importance of early experiences in shaping an individual’s behavior and preferences.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychological Development
      5.5
      Seconds
  • Question 2 - What is the role of the Golgi apparatus in a neuron? ...

    Correct

    • What is the role of the Golgi apparatus in a neuron?

      Your Answer: Packaging of macromolecules

      Explanation:

      Melanin

      Melanin is a pigment found in various parts of the body, including the skin, hair, and eyes. It is produced by specialized cells called melanocytes, which are located in the skin’s basal layer. The function of melanin in the body is not fully understood, but it is thought to play a role in protecting the skin from the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Additionally, melanin may be a by-product of neurotransmitter synthesis, although this function is not well established. Overall, the role of melanin in the body is an area of ongoing research.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      9.7
      Seconds
  • Question 3 - What is the most frequently occurring genetic mutation in individuals with early onset...

    Correct

    • What is the most frequently occurring genetic mutation in individuals with early onset familial Alzheimer's disease?

      Your Answer: PSEN1

      Explanation:

      Genetics plays a role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease, with different genes being associated with early onset and late onset cases. Early onset Alzheimer’s, which is rare, is linked to three genes: amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin one (PSEN-1), and presenilin two (PSEN-2). The APP gene, located on chromosome 21, produces a protein that is a precursor to amyloid. The presenilins are enzymes that cleave APP to produce amyloid beta fragments, and alterations in the ratios of these fragments can lead to plaque formation. Late onset Alzheimer’s is associated with the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene on chromosome 19, with the E4 variant increasing the risk of developing the disease. People with Down’s syndrome are also at high risk of developing Alzheimer’s due to inheriting an extra copy of the APP gene.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      6.1
      Seconds
  • Question 4 - Which structure is responsible for the secretion of glucocorticoids in the HPA axis?...

    Correct

    • Which structure is responsible for the secretion of glucocorticoids in the HPA axis?

      Your Answer: The adrenal gland

      Explanation:

      HPA Axis Dysfunction in Mood Disorders

      The HPA axis, which includes regulatory neural inputs and a feedback loop involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands, plays a central role in the stress response. Excessive secretion of cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone, can lead to disruptions in cellular functioning and widespread physiologic dysfunction. Dysregulation of the HPA axis is implicated in mood disorders such as depression and bipolar affective disorder.

      In depressed patients, cortisol levels often do not decrease as expected in response to the administration of dexamethasone, a synthetic corticosteroid. This abnormality in the dexamethasone suppression test is thought to be linked to genetic of acquired defects of glucocorticoid receptors. Tricyclic antidepressants have been shown to increase expression of glucocorticoid receptors, whereas this is not the case for SSRIs.

      Early adverse experiences can produce long standing changes in HPA axis regulation, indicating a possible neurobiological mechanism whereby childhood trauma could be translated into increased vulnerability to mood disorder. In major depression, there is hypersecretion of cortisol, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), and ACTH, and associated adrenocortical enlargement. HPA abnormalities have also been found in other psychiatric disorders including Alzheimer’s and PTSD.

      In bipolar disorder, dysregulation of ACTH and cortisol response after CRH stimulation have been reported. Abnormal DST results are found more often during depressive episodes in the course of bipolar disorder than in unipolar disorder. Reduced pituitary volume secondary to LHPA stimulation, resulting in pituitary hypoactivity, has been observed in bipolar patients.

      Overall, HPA axis dysfunction is implicated in mood disorders, and understanding the underlying mechanisms may lead to new opportunities for treatments.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      5.6
      Seconds
  • Question 5 - What substance has a comparable impact to khat? ...

    Correct

    • What substance has a comparable impact to khat?

      Your Answer: Amphetamine

      Explanation:

      For centuries, individuals from the East coast of Africa have been chewing khat, which produces effects that stem from two phenylalkylamines, cathinone and cathine, both of which are structurally similar to amphetamine. The physical effects of khat include dry mouth, dizziness, impotence, cirrhosis, tachycardia, and tachypnoea.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      7.8
      Seconds
  • Question 6 - What parenting style emphasizes obedience and status through the implementation of strict rules?...

    Correct

    • What parenting style emphasizes obedience and status through the implementation of strict rules?

      Your Answer: Authoritarian

      Explanation:

      Parenting Styles

      In the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on over 100 preschool-age children and identified four important dimensions of parenting: disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturance, communication styles, and expectations of maturity and control. Based on these dimensions, she suggested that most parents fall into one of three parenting styles, with a fourth category added later by Maccoby and Martin.

      Authoritarian parenting is characterized by strict rules and punishment for noncompliance, with little explanation given for the rules. These parents prioritize status and obedience over nurturing their children. This style tends to result in obedient and proficient children, but they may rank lower in happiness, social competence, and self-esteem.

      Authoritative parents are similar to authoritarian parents, but they tend to be more responsive to their children. They set strict rules but provide explanations for them and nurture their children when they fail to meet expectations. The focus is on setting standards while also being supportive. This style tends to result in happy, capable, and successful children.

      Permissive parents rarely discipline their children and avoid confrontation, allowing their children to self-regulate. They prefer to take on the role of a friend rather than a disciplinarian. This style often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation, experience problems with authority, and perform poorly in school.

      Uninvolved parenting is characterized by little involvement and few demands. This style ranks lowest across all life domains, with children lacking self-control, having low self-esteem, and being less competent than their peers.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychological Development
      6.4
      Seconds
  • Question 7 - In Freud's topographical model of the mind, which term was not included in...

    Correct

    • In Freud's topographical model of the mind, which term was not included in his description?

      Your Answer: Subconscious system

      Explanation:

      Freud’s Topographical Model of the Mind

      Freud’s topographical model of the mind, introduced in his book The Interpretation of Dreams, divides the mind into three regions: the conscious system, the preconscious system, and the unconscious system.

      The conscious system refers to the part of the mind that is aware. The preconscious system is the information that is known and can potentially be brought into consciousness. Finally, the unconscious system is believed to be outside conscious awareness and operates on primary process thinking, which is aimed at wish fulfillment. It is governed by the pleasure principle, has no concept of time, denies the existence of negatives, and allows the existence of contradictions, making it irrational.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      9.9
      Seconds
  • Question 8 - In terms of educational psychology, what is the term for a reinforcement schedule...

    Incorrect

    • In terms of educational psychology, what is the term for a reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is provided consistently but the amount of responses needed varies from one instance to the next?

      Your Answer: Variable interval

      Correct Answer: Variable ratio

      Explanation:

      BF Skinner’s theory states that behavior is influenced by its consequences, which can be positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, of punishment. The frequency and consistency of these consequences, as determined by different reinforcement schedules, can shape and maintain behavior in various ways. Common reinforcement schedules include continuous reinforcement, fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Basic Psychological Processes
      10.4
      Seconds
  • Question 9 - What antihistamine medication is prescribed to treat extrapyramidal side effects? ...

    Correct

    • What antihistamine medication is prescribed to treat extrapyramidal side effects?

      Your Answer: Diphenhydramine

      Explanation:

      Diphenhydramine is a type of antihistamine that belongs to the first generation. It is commonly used to alleviate extrapyramidal side effects (EPSE). Unlike second generation antihistamines, first generation antihistamines have anticholinergic properties and can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, resulting in sedative effects. The anticholinergic effects of first generation antihistamines are beneficial for treating EPSE, which is believed to be caused by excessive acetylcholine due to reduced dopamine activity. Dopamine normally inhibits acetylcholine, but when dopamine activity is reduced, acetylcholine levels increase, leading to EPSE.

      Extrapyramidal side-effects (EPSE’s) are a group of side effects that affect voluntary motor control, commonly seen in patients taking antipsychotic drugs. EPSE’s include dystonias, parkinsonism, akathisia, and tardive dyskinesia. They can be frightening and uncomfortable, leading to problems with non-compliance and can even be life-threatening in the case of laryngeal dystonia. EPSE’s are thought to be due to antagonism of dopaminergic D2 receptors in the basal ganglia. Symptoms generally occur within the first few days of treatment, with dystonias appearing quickly, within a few hours of administration of the first dose. Newer antipsychotics tend to produce less EPSE’s, with clozapine carrying the lowest risk and haloperidol carrying the highest risk. Akathisia is the most resistant EPSE to treat. EPSE’s can also occur when antipsychotics are discontinued (withdrawal dystonia).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      5.5
      Seconds
  • Question 10 - In what region of the brain is the dentate gyrus located? ...

    Correct

    • In what region of the brain is the dentate gyrus located?

      Your Answer: Temporal lobe

      Explanation:

      The hippocampal formation includes the dentate gyrus, which is located in the medial temporal lobe. The cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain, is divided into four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital. The frontal lobe is situated at the front of the cerebrum, while the temporal lobes are on the sides, the parietal lobe is on the top, and the occipital lobe is at the back.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurological Examination
      7.4
      Seconds
  • Question 11 - A 35-year-old woman with mild anxiety was prescribed an antidepressant but experienced sexual...

    Correct

    • A 35-year-old woman with mild anxiety was prescribed an antidepressant but experienced sexual side effects. Her doctor suggested switching to a medication that is a serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). What is an example of an SNRI?

      Your Answer: Milnacipran

      Explanation:

      SNRIs are a type of antidepressant medication that work by blocking the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine, providing two mechanisms to help with the antidepressant effect. They are particularly effective at inhibiting the norepinephrine transporter compared to the serotonin transporter. Examples of SNRIs include Venlafaxine, Desvenlafaxine, Duloxetine, and Milnacipran. Bupropion is a different type of antidepressant that works by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine (NDRI). Escitalopram is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), while Mirtazapine is a noradrenergic and specific serotonin antidepressant (NaSSA). Nefazodone is a serotonin antagonist/reuptake inhibitor (SARI).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      15
      Seconds
  • Question 12 - What is the duration of time it takes for half of the olanzapine...

    Incorrect

    • What is the duration of time it takes for half of the olanzapine to be eliminated from the body?

      Your Answer: 10 hours

      Correct Answer: 30 hours

      Explanation:

      Given that olanzapine is a once daily medication, it is reasonable to estimate its half-life to fall within the range of 20-30 hours. As it happens, the actual half-life of olanzapine is 30 hours.

      Antipsychotic Half-life and Time to Steady State

      Antipsychotic medications are commonly used to treat various mental health conditions, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Understanding the half-life and time to steady state of these medications is important for determining dosing and monitoring their effectiveness.

      Aripiprazole has a half-life of 75 hours and takes approximately 2 weeks to reach steady state. Olanzapine has a half-life of 30 hours and takes about 1 week to reach steady state. Risperidone has a half-life of 20 hours when taken orally and takes 2-3 days to reach steady state. Clozapine and Amisulpride both have a half-life of 12 hours and take 2-3 days to reach steady state. Ziprasidone has a shorter half-life of 7 hours and takes 2-3 days to reach steady state. Quetiapine has the shortest half-life of 6 hours and also takes 2-3 days to reach steady state.

      Knowing the half-life and time to steady state of antipsychotic medications can help healthcare providers determine the appropriate dosing and frequency of administration. It can also aid in monitoring the effectiveness of the medication and adjusting the treatment plan as needed.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      7.4
      Seconds
  • Question 13 - Which structure is thought to play a major role in processing rewards? ...

    Correct

    • Which structure is thought to play a major role in processing rewards?

      Your Answer: Nucleus accumbens

      Explanation:

      Drug addiction is closely linked to reward processing, which is primarily regulated by the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA).

      The Basal Ganglia: Functions and Disorders

      The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical structures that play a crucial role in controlling movement and some cognitive processes. The components of the basal ganglia include the striatum (caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens), subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra (divided into pars compacta and pars reticulata). The putamen and globus pallidus are collectively referred to as the lenticular nucleus.

      The basal ganglia are connected in a complex loop, with the cortex projecting to the striatum, the striatum to the internal segment of the globus pallidus, the internal segment of the globus pallidus to the thalamus, and the thalamus back to the cortex. This loop is responsible for regulating movement and cognitive processes.

      However, problems with the basal ganglia can lead to several conditions. Huntington’s chorea is caused by degeneration of the caudate nucleus, while Wilson’s disease is characterized by copper deposition in the basal ganglia. Parkinson’s disease is associated with degeneration of the substantia nigra, and hemiballism results from damage to the subthalamic nucleus.

      In summary, the basal ganglia are a crucial part of the brain that regulate movement and some cognitive processes. Disorders of the basal ganglia can lead to significant neurological conditions that affect movement and other functions.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      4.5
      Seconds
  • Question 14 - What was the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's original experiments on classical conditioning with...

    Correct

    • What was the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's original experiments on classical conditioning with dogs?

      Your Answer: Seeing food

      Explanation:

      Classical Conditioning: A Learning Theory by Ivan Pavlov

      Classical conditioning is a learning theory developed by Ivan Pavlov. It suggests that events that occur together are associated and acquire a similar meaning. Unlike operant conditioning, which focuses on responses to behavior, classical conditioning looks at responses to stimuli. In classical conditioning, animals behave as if they have learned to associate a stimulus with a significant event. Pavlov demonstrated that innate responses, such as a dog salivating when it sees food, can be associated with a neutral stimulus, such as ringing a bell, so that ringing the bell can cause salivation even in the absence of food.

      Important terms used in classical conditioning include stimulus generalization and discrimination, higher order conditioning, spontaneous recovery, and aversive conditioning. Extinction is the laboratory analogue of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders, while Counterconditioning involves pairing a feared conditioned stimulus with a positive outcome. Incubation occurs in fear responses, and reciprocal inhibition is a technique that aims to replace an undesired response with a desired one by counterconditioning. Some stimuli are more prone to conditioning than others, which is referred to as stimulus/biological preparedness.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      68.7
      Seconds
  • Question 15 - What is the most frequently occurring viable trisomy? ...

    Correct

    • What is the most frequently occurring viable trisomy?

      Your Answer: Trisomy 21

      Explanation:

      Aneuploidy: Abnormal Chromosome Numbers

      Aneuploidy refers to the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes, which can result from errors during meiosis. Typically, human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, but aneuploidy can lead to extra of missing chromosomes. Trisomies, which involve the presence of an additional chromosome, are the most common aneuploidies in humans. However, most trisomies are not compatible with life, and only trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome), trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome), and trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) survive to birth. Aneuploidy can result in imbalances in gene expression, which can lead to a range of symptoms and developmental issues.

      Compared to autosomal trisomies, humans are more able to tolerate extra sex chromosomes. Klinefelter’s syndrome, which involves the presence of an extra X chromosome, is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy. Individuals with Klinefelter’s and XYY often remain undiagnosed, but they may experience reduced sexual development and fertility. Monosomies, which involve the loss of a chromosome, are rare in humans. The only viable human monosomy involves the X chromosome and results in Turner’s syndrome. Turner’s females display a wide range of symptoms, including infertility and impaired sexual development.

      The frequency and severity of aneuploidies vary widely. Down’s syndrome is the most common viable autosomal trisomy, affecting 1 in 800 births. Klinefelter’s syndrome affects 1-2 in 1000 male births, while XYY syndrome affects 1 in 1000 male births and Triple X syndrome affects 1 in 1000 births. Turner syndrome is less common, affecting 1 in 5000 female births. Edwards syndrome and Patau syndrome are rare, affecting 1 in 6000 and 1 in 10,000 births, respectively. Understanding the genetic basis and consequences of aneuploidy is important for diagnosis, treatment, and genetic counseling.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      4.4
      Seconds
  • Question 16 - Which of the following best describes the situation where a mental health nurse...

    Correct

    • Which of the following best describes the situation where a mental health nurse assumes that a patient is lazy because of their weight?

      Your Answer: Halo effect

      Explanation:

      The Halo Effect: How One Perception Influences Another

      The halo effect is a cognitive bias that occurs when our perception of one characteristic of a person of object is influenced by our perception of another. This means that if we perceive someone as attractive, we may also assume that they are intelligent of kind, even if we have no evidence to support these assumptions. The halo effect can have a significant impact on our judgments and decisions, as it can lead us to make assumptions based on limited information. It is important to be aware of this bias and to try to make judgments based on objective criteria rather than subjective perceptions.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      9.6
      Seconds
  • Question 17 - What is a true statement about how methadone works? ...

    Correct

    • What is a true statement about how methadone works?

      Your Answer: It is a mu receptor agonist

      Explanation:

      Compared to other opioid receptors, methadone exhibits significantly greater affinity for mu receptors.

      Opioid Pharmacology and Treatment Medications

      Opioids work by binding to opioid receptors in the brain, specifically the µ, k, and δ receptors. The µ receptor is the main target for opioids and mediates euphoria, respiratory depression, and dependence. Dopaminergic cells in the ventral tegmental area produce dopamine, which is released into the nucleus accumbens upon stimulation of µ receptors, leading to the reward and euphoria that drives repeated use. However, with repeated exposure, µ receptors become less responsive, leading to dysphoria and drug craving.

      There are several medications used in opioid treatment. Methadone is a full agonist targeting µ receptors, with some action against k and δ receptors, and has a half-life of 15-22 hours. However, it carries a risk of respiratory depression, especially when used with hypnotics and alcohol. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist targeting µ receptors, as well as a partial k agonist of functional antagonist and a weak δ antagonist. It has a high affinity for µ receptors and a longer half-life of 24-42 hours, making it safer than methadone. Naloxone is an antagonist targeting all opioid receptors and is used to reverse opioid overdose, with a half-life of 30-120 minutes. However, it can cause noncardiogenic pulmonary edema in some cases. Naltrexone is a reversible competitive antagonist at µ and ĸ receptors, with a half-life of 4-6 hours, and is used as an adjunctive prophylactic treatment for detoxified formerly opioid-dependent people.

      Alpha2 adrenergic agonists, such as clonidine and lofexidine, can ameliorate opioid withdrawal symptoms associated with the noradrenaline system, including sweating, shivering, and runny nose and eyes. The locus coeruleus, a nucleus in the pons with a high density of noradrenergic neurons possessing µ-opioid receptors, is involved in wakefulness, blood pressure, breathing, and overall alertness. Exposure to opioids results in heightened neuronal activity of the nucleus cells, and if opioids are not present to suppress this activity, increased amounts of norepinephrine are released, leading to withdrawal symptoms. Clonidine was originally developed as an antihypertensive, but its antihypertensive effects are problematic in detox, so lofexidine was developed as an alternative with less hypotensive effects.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      5.3
      Seconds
  • Question 18 - As per the classification of the Registrar General, how are married mothers who...

    Correct

    • As per the classification of the Registrar General, how are married mothers who are unemployed categorized?

      Your Answer: According to their husband's occupation

      Explanation:

      Social Class Determination and the Registrar General’s Classification System

      The Registrar General’s classification system, which was implemented in 1911, has been a useful tool in categorizing population groups. However, it can pose challenges when classifying individuals who are unemployed, part-time workers, of retirees.

      Traditionally, social class has been determined by occupation, with professionals, landowners, and higher managerial positions falling under Class I. Class II includes intermediate occupations, while skilled workers are classified under Class III. Semi-skilled workers are categorized under Class IV, and unskilled workers fall under Class V.

      However, students and retirees do not fit neatly into this classification system. They are often excluded from the traditional social class structure and are instead given their own category. This highlights the limitations of the Registrar General’s classification system and the need for more inclusive and comprehensive methods of categorizing population groups.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      7.3
      Seconds
  • Question 19 - A client is referred with depression and is eager to begin medication. You...

    Correct

    • A client is referred with depression and is eager to begin medication. You find out that they have hypertension. What would be the most suitable treatment option?

      Your Answer: Fluoxetine

      Explanation:

      Antidepressants and Diabetes

      Depression is a prevalent condition among patients with diabetes. It is crucial to select the appropriate antidepressant as some may have negative effects on weight and glucose levels. The first-line treatment for depression in diabetic patients is selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), with fluoxetine having the most supporting data. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are also likely to be safe, but there is less evidence to support their use. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) should be avoided. These recommendations are based on the Maudsley Guidelines 10th Edition.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      7.2
      Seconds
  • Question 20 - What is a true statement about the CAGE questionnaire? ...

    Correct

    • What is a true statement about the CAGE questionnaire?

      Your Answer: It is a 4-item scale

      Explanation:

      Although CAGE is commonly used for screening, it should not be used as a diagnostic tool. Additionally, it is not recommended to use CAGE as an outcome measure. AUDIT has been found to be more effective than CAGE and is the preferred screening tool according to the NICE Guidelines (CG115).

      Alcohol screening tools are available to assist in the diagnosis of alcohol problems. One such tool is the AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test), which consists of 10 questions and covers harmful use, hazardous use, and dependence. Another tool is the FAST (Fast Alcohol Screening Test), which has just 4 questions and was developed for use in a busy medical setting. The CAGE is a well-known 4 question screening tool, but recent research has questioned its value. Other tools include SASQ (Single alcohol screening questionnaire), PAT (Paddington Alcohol Test), MAST (Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test), and RAPS4 (Rapid Alcohol Problem Screen 4). These tools can help identify hazardous of harmful alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      5.1
      Seconds
  • Question 21 - What is the term used to describe a section of DNA in a...

    Correct

    • What is the term used to describe a section of DNA in a gene that does not undergo protein translation?

      Your Answer: Intron

      Explanation:

      Splicing of mRNA

      After the transcription of DNA into mRNA, the mRNA undergoes a crucial process known as splicing. This process involves the removal of certain portions of the mRNA, called introns, leaving behind the remaining portions known as exons. The exons are then translated into proteins. The resulting spliced form of RNA is referred to as mature mRNA. This process of splicing is essential for the proper functioning of genes and the production of functional proteins.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Genetics
      5.1
      Seconds
  • Question 22 - With which concept is the 'phonological similarity effect' commonly associated? ...

    Correct

    • With which concept is the 'phonological similarity effect' commonly associated?

      Your Answer: Working memory

      Explanation:

      If you are familiar with the ‘phonological Loop’ component of the working memory, you may be able to deduce the meaning of the ‘phonological similarity effect’. This effect describes the difficulty in remembering words that sound alike. Additionally, the ‘word-length effect’ and ‘articulatory suppression’ are two other phenomena that involve the working memory.

      Memory Forms

      Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information. There are different forms of memory, including sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory.

      Sensory memory is the capacity for briefly retaining the large amounts of information that people encounter daily. It includes echoic memory (gathered through auditory stimuli), iconic memory (gathered through sight), and haptic memory (acquired through touch).

      Short-term memory is the ability to keep a small amount of information available for a short period of time. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model (1968) suggests the existence of a short-term storehouse with limited capacity. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) further developed the concept of short-term memory, which eventually became known as Baddeley’s multi-storehouse model (2000). This model includes the central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological buffer/loop, and episodic buffer.

      Long-term memory includes declarative (of explicit) memories, which can be consciously retrieved, and nondeclarative (of implicit) memories, which cannot. Declarative memory includes episodic memory (stores personal experiences) and semantic memory (stores information about facts and concepts). Non-declarative memory includes procedural memory (recalls motor and executive skills), associative memory (storage and retrieval of information through association with other information), and non-associative memory (refers to newly learned behavior through repeated exposure to an isolated stimulus).

      Overall, memory is a complex and essential cognitive function that plays a crucial role in learning, reasoning, and understanding.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      4.8
      Seconds
  • Question 23 - Which drug interacts with an ionotropic receptor to produce its effects? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which drug interacts with an ionotropic receptor to produce its effects?

      Your Answer: Cannabis

      Correct Answer: Benzodiazepines

      Explanation:

      Mechanisms of action for illicit drugs can be classified based on their effects on ionotropic receptors of ion channels, G coupled receptors, of monoamine transporters. Cocaine and amphetamine both increase dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft, but through different mechanisms. Cocaine directly blocks the dopamine transporter, while amphetamine binds to the transporter and increases dopamine efflux through various mechanisms, including inhibition of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 and monoamine oxidase, and stimulation of the intracellular receptor TAAR1. These mechanisms result in increased dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft and reuptake inhibition.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      6.5
      Seconds
  • Question 24 - A 70-year-old taxi driver reports difficulty with short term memory and is referred...

    Correct

    • A 70-year-old taxi driver reports difficulty with short term memory and is referred to the memory clinic. After assessment, he is diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment. He states that he has been able to continue working as a taxi driver without any issues. What is the most appropriate course of action regarding informing the DVLA about his diagnosis?

      Your Answer: He does not need to notify the DVLA

      Explanation:

      If mild cognitive impairment (MCI) does not affect driving, there is no need to inform DVLA. However, if there are concerns about the impact of MCI on driving, DVLA should be notified to conduct an investigation.

      DVLA guidelines state that assessing driving ability in individuals with dementia is challenging. Those with poor short-term memory, disorientation, lack of insight, and judgment are likely to be unfit to drive. The varying presentations and progression rates of dementia are recognized, and attention disorders can also impair driving ability. Medical reports are typically used to determine fitness to drive. In cases of early dementia where sufficient skills are retained and progression is slow, a license may be granted, subject to annual review. A formal driving assessment may be necessary.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Basic Ethics And Philosophy Of Psychiatry
      36
      Seconds
  • Question 25 - What is the truth about polyuria and polydipsia caused by lithium? ...

    Correct

    • What is the truth about polyuria and polydipsia caused by lithium?

      Your Answer: It is improved by once daily versus twice daily dosing of lithium

      Explanation:

      Daily administration results in increased maximum concentration but more importantly decreased minimum concentration, which is believed to facilitate renal restoration.

      Lithium – Pharmacology

      Pharmacokinetics:
      Lithium salts are rapidly absorbed following oral administration and are almost exclusively excreted by the kidneys unchanged. Blood samples for lithium should be taken 12 hours post-dose.

      Ebstein’s:
      Ebstein’s anomaly is a congenital malformation consisting of a prolapse of the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. It occurs in 1:20,000 of the general population. Initial data suggested it was more common in those using lithium but this had not held to be true.

      Contraindications:
      Addison’s disease, Brugada syndrome, cardiac disease associated with rhythm disorders, clinically significant renal impairment, untreated of untreatable hypothyroidism, low sodium levels.

      Side-effects:
      Common side effects include nausea, tremor, polyuria/polydipsia, rash/dermatitis, blurred vision, dizziness, decreased appetite, drowsiness, metallic taste, and diarrhea. Side-effects are often dose-related.

      Long-term use is associated with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, hypercalcemia/hyperparathyroidism, irreversible nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, and reduced GFR.

      Lithium-induced diabetes insipidus:
      Treatment options include stopping lithium (if feasible), keeping levels within 0.4-0.8 mmol/L, once-daily dose of the drug taken at bedtime, amiloride, thiazide diuretics, indomethacin, and desmopressin.

      Toxicity:
      Lithium salts have a narrow therapeutic/toxic ratio. Risk factors for lithium toxicity include drugs altering renal function, decreased circulating volume, infections, fever, decreased oral intake of water, renal insufficiency, and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Features of lithium toxicity include GI symptoms and neuro symptoms.

      Pre-prescribing:
      Before prescribing lithium, renal function, cardiac function, thyroid function, FBC, and BMI should be checked. Women of childbearing age should be advised regarding contraception, and information about toxicity should be provided.

      Monitoring:
      Lithium blood levels should be checked weekly until stable, and then every 3-6 months once stable. Thyroid and renal function should be checked every 6 months. Patients should be issued with an information booklet, alert card, and record book.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      9.4
      Seconds
  • Question 26 - In what situations can the AMDISEN rating scale be applied effectively? ...

    Correct

    • In what situations can the AMDISEN rating scale be applied effectively?

      Your Answer: Lithium toxicity

      Explanation:

      Lithium – Pharmacology

      Pharmacokinetics:
      Lithium salts are rapidly absorbed following oral administration and are almost exclusively excreted by the kidneys unchanged. Blood samples for lithium should be taken 12 hours post-dose.

      Ebstein’s:
      Ebstein’s anomaly is a congenital malformation consisting of a prolapse of the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. It occurs in 1:20,000 of the general population. Initial data suggested it was more common in those using lithium but this had not held to be true.

      Contraindications:
      Addison’s disease, Brugada syndrome, cardiac disease associated with rhythm disorders, clinically significant renal impairment, untreated of untreatable hypothyroidism, low sodium levels.

      Side-effects:
      Common side effects include nausea, tremor, polyuria/polydipsia, rash/dermatitis, blurred vision, dizziness, decreased appetite, drowsiness, metallic taste, and diarrhea. Side-effects are often dose-related.

      Long-term use is associated with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, hypercalcemia/hyperparathyroidism, irreversible nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, and reduced GFR.

      Lithium-induced diabetes insipidus:
      Treatment options include stopping lithium (if feasible), keeping levels within 0.4-0.8 mmol/L, once-daily dose of the drug taken at bedtime, amiloride, thiazide diuretics, indomethacin, and desmopressin.

      Toxicity:
      Lithium salts have a narrow therapeutic/toxic ratio. Risk factors for lithium toxicity include drugs altering renal function, decreased circulating volume, infections, fever, decreased oral intake of water, renal insufficiency, and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Features of lithium toxicity include GI symptoms and neuro symptoms.

      Pre-prescribing:
      Before prescribing lithium, renal function, cardiac function, thyroid function, FBC, and BMI should be checked. Women of childbearing age should be advised regarding contraception, and information about toxicity should be provided.

      Monitoring:
      Lithium blood levels should be checked weekly until stable, and then every 3-6 months once stable. Thyroid and renal function should be checked every 6 months. Patients should be issued with an information booklet, alert card, and record book.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      3.5
      Seconds
  • Question 27 - Which statement about serotonin is incorrect? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which statement about serotonin is incorrect?

      Your Answer: It is produced in enterochromaffin cells

      Correct Answer: It can cross the blood brain barrier

      Explanation:

      Serotonin: Synthesis and Breakdown

      Serotonin, also known as 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is synthesized in the central nervous system (CNS) in the raphe nuclei located in the brainstem, as well as in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in enterochromaffin cells. The amino acid L-tryptophan, obtained from the diet, is used to synthesize serotonin. L-tryptophan can cross the blood-brain barrier, but serotonin cannot.

      The transformation of L-tryptophan into serotonin involves two steps. First, hydroxylation to 5-hydroxytryptophan is catalyzed by tryptophan hydroxylase. Second, decarboxylation of 5-hydroxytryptophan to serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) is catalyzed by L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase.

      Serotonin is taken up from the synapse by a monoamine transporter (SERT). Substances that block this transporter include MDMA, amphetamine, cocaine, TCAs, and SSRIs. Serotonin is broken down by monoamine oxidase (MAO) and then by aldehyde dehydrogenase to 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA).

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      12.6
      Seconds
  • Question 28 - Which of the following is not a risk factor associated with low socioeconomic...

    Correct

    • Which of the following is not a risk factor associated with low socioeconomic class?

      Your Answer: Anorexia nervosa

      Explanation:

      Social Class and Mental Disorder

      There is a consistent finding that shows an inverse relationship between social class and rates of mental illness. This means that individuals from lower social classes are more likely to experience mental health issues compared to those from higher social classes. However, this inverse relationship is not observed in the case of anorexia nervosa. This suggests that factors other than social class may play a more significant role in the development of this particular disorder. Overall, the relationship between social class and mental health is complex and requires further investigation to fully understand the underlying factors.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Social Psychology
      9.5
      Seconds
  • Question 29 - What sign is exhibited by a patient with catatonia who moves their arm...

    Correct

    • What sign is exhibited by a patient with catatonia who moves their arm in the direction of minimal force applied by a psychiatrist and returns it to its original position after the force is removed?

      Your Answer: Mitgehen

      Explanation:

      The terms mitmachen and mitgehen are often used interchangeably in the literature, leading to confusion. However, it is important to note that mitgehen is a more severe manifestation of mitmachen, as it involves the examiner being able to move the patient’s body with minimal pressure, as seen in the anglepoise lamp sign.

      – Catatonia is a psychiatric syndrome characterized by disturbed motor functions, mood, and thought.
      – Key behaviors associated with catatonia include stupor, posturing, waxy flexibility, negativism, automatic obedience, mitmachen, mitgehen, ambitendency, psychological pillow, forced grasping, obstruction, echopraxia, aversion, mannerisms, stereotypies, motor perseveration, echolalia, and logorrhoea.
      – These behaviors are often tested in exam questions.
      – Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum is credited with the original clinical description of catatonia.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Classification And Assessment
      8.1
      Seconds
  • Question 30 - What is the most frequently reported side-effect of methylphenidate? ...

    Correct

    • What is the most frequently reported side-effect of methylphenidate?

      Your Answer: Nausea

      Explanation:

      ADHD medications can be classified into stimulant and non-stimulant drugs. The therapeutic effects of these drugs are believed to be mediated through the action of noradrenaline in the prefrontal cortex. Common side effects of these drugs include decreased appetite, insomnia, nervousness, headache, and nausea. Stimulant drugs like dexamphetamine, methylphenidate, and lisdexamfetamine inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline. Non-stimulant drugs like atomoxetine, guanfacine, and clonidine work by increasing noradrenaline levels in the synaptic cleft through different mechanisms. The most common side effects of these drugs are decreased appetite, somnolence, headache, and abdominal pain.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Psychopharmacology
      5.9
      Seconds

SESSION STATS - PERFORMANCE PER SPECIALTY

Psychological Development (2/2) 100%
Neurosciences (3/4) 75%
Genetics (3/3) 100%
Psychopharmacology (8/10) 80%
Social Psychology (6/6) 100%
Basic Psychological Processes (0/1) 0%
Neurological Examination (1/1) 100%
Classification And Assessment (2/2) 100%
Basic Ethics And Philosophy Of Psychiatry (1/1) 100%
Passmed