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Question 1
Incorrect
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To what type of cell can mesenchymal stem cells transform?
Your Answer: White blood cells
Correct Answer: Osteoblasts
Explanation:Mesenchymal Cells: The Stem Cells of the Human Skeleton
Mesenchymal cells are the primary stem cells of the human skeleton. These multipotent cells originate in the bone marrow and have the ability to differentiate into various cell types. Osteoblasts, responsible for bone formation, chondrocytes, which give rise to cartilage, and adipocytes, specialized in storing energy as fat, are some of the cells that mesenchymal cells can produce. Muscle cells, or myocytes, arise from muscle satellite cells, while skin cells come from epithelial stem cells. Neurons mostly arise from neural stem cells, although some may come from astrocytes. White blood cells, on the other hand, come from hematopoietic stem cells. Mesenchymal cells play a crucial role in the maintenance and repair of the human skeleton, making them an essential area of study in regenerative medicine.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 2
Incorrect
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What are the potential clinical consequences of a lack of vitamin E?
Your Answer: Bleeding gums
Correct Answer: Ataxia
Explanation:Vitamin E Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency is a rare condition that is more likely to occur in individuals with problems affecting the absorption of dietary fats. This includes those with a history of bowel surgery, pancreatic insufficiency, and cystic fibrosis. Premature infants are also at a higher risk of developing this deficiency as vitamin E does not easily cross the placenta. However, supplementation with vitamin E can reverse the damage in some cases.
The effects of vitamin E deficiency can be severe and can cause spinocerebellar degeneration, which includes limb ataxia, loss of joint position sense, loss of sensation of vibration, and loss of deep tendon reflexes. Additionally, it can cause degeneration of retinal pigments, leading to blindness. In premature infants, it can cause haemolytic anaemia, thrombocytosis, and oedema.
Overall, vitamin E deficiency is crucial in preventing and treating its effects. It is important to identify individuals who are at a higher risk of developing this deficiency and provide them with appropriate supplementation to prevent any long-term damage.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 3
Correct
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A couple in their late 30s come to the clinic seeking information about the risk of their three children inheriting Huntington's disease. The husband has recently been diagnosed with the disease, while the wife is not affected. What is the likelihood, expressed as a percentage, that their children will inherit the disease?
Your Answer: 50%
Explanation:Huntington’s Disease
Huntington’s disease is a genetic disorder that typically appears later in life and is characterized by symptoms such as chorea, cognitive decline, and personality changes. It is an autosomal dominant disease, meaning that there is a 50% chance of passing it on to offspring. If the gene is inherited from an unaffected parent, the child will not be affected. This is different from autosomal recessive inheritance, where both parents must pass on the gene for it to affect their children.
The disease is caused by an increase in the length of a repeating trinucleotide sequence (CAG) in the Huntington protein. This sequence can change in length through generations, and longer sequences are associated with earlier onset of symptoms (genetic anticipation). Since Huntington’s disease usually presents itself after people have already started their families, there are many issues associated with genetic testing.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 4
Correct
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What factor causes a shift of the oxygen dissociation curve to the left?
Your Answer: Increased pH
Explanation:The Oxygen Dissociation Curve and its Effects on Oxygen Saturation
The oxygen dissociation curve is a graph that compares the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (Hb) at different partial pressures of oxygen. When more oxygen is needed by the tissues, the curve shifts to the right. This means that at the same partial pressure of oxygen, less oxygen is bound to Hb, allowing it to be released to the tissues. This effect is caused by increased levels of CO2 and temperature, which assist in the transfer of oxygen to more metabolically active tissues. Additionally, increased levels of 2,3-DPG also aid in this process.
On the other hand, a left shift in the curve reflects conditions where there is less need for oxygen in the tissues, such as in the lungs. This allows for increased binding of oxygen to Hb, allowing it to be taken up before transport to the tissues that require it. Overall, the oxygen dissociation curve plays a crucial role in regulating oxygen saturation in the body and ensuring that oxygen is delivered to the tissues that need it most.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 5
Correct
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What is the estimated percentage of oxygen in the blood that is attached to haemoglobin?
Your Answer: 100%
Explanation:Calculation of Oxygen in Blood
The majority of oxygen in the blood is bound to haemoglobin, with the exact amount varying based on the oxygen saturation and haemoglobin level. To calculate the amount of oxygen per litre of blood, the formula (13.9 × Hb × sats/100) + (PaO2 × 0.03) can be used. For example, an average man with an Hb of 14, saturations of 98% on room air, and a PaO2 of 12 would have 191 ml of oxygen per litre of blood. It is important to note that only 0.36 ml of this oxygen is dissolved in the blood.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 6
Correct
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Of which cellular structure is the fibrillar centre a component?
Your Answer: The nucleolus
Explanation:The Fibrillar Centre in the Nucleolus
The fibrillar centre is a crucial component of the nucleolus, which is found in most metazoan nucleoli, particularly in higher eukaryotes. Along with the dense fibrillar components and the granular component, it forms the three major components of the nucleolus. During the end of mitosis, the fibrillar centre serves as a storage point for nucleolar ribosomal chromatin and associated ribonucleoprotein transcripts. As the nucleolus becomes active, the ribosomal chromatin and ribonucleoprotein transcripts begin to form the dense fibrillar components, which are more peripherally located and surround the fibrillar centres. The transcription zone for multiple copies of the pre-rRNA genes is the border between these two structures. It is important to note that the fibrillar centre is not a component of any of the cell structures mentioned in the incorrect answer options.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 7
Correct
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What is the primary means of transportation for vitamin D in the human body?
Your Answer: In blood, bound to the group specific component
Explanation:The Role of UV Light and Vitamin D in Calcium and Phosphate Regulation
In order for the body to produce Vitamin D3, UV light at a specific wavelength is required to convert cholesterol in the skin. Vitamin D2 and D3 are then transported in the bloodstream bound to the Vitamin-D Binding Protein and undergo further modifications in the liver and kidney to become the active form, 1,25 (OH)2Vitamin D. This active form plays a crucial role in regulating calcium and phosphate concentrations in the body.
1,25 (OH)2Vitamin D increases calcium absorption in the duodenum and inhibits the secretion and synthesis of PTH, which helps to maintain calcium concentrations. It also increases phosphate absorption in the jejunum and ileum, which is important for maintaining phosphate concentrations. Additionally, 1,25 (OH)2Vitamin D promotes bone turnover by stimulating both osteoblast and osteoclast activity.
Overall, the production and activation of Vitamin D through UV light and dietary sources is essential for proper calcium and phosphate regulation in the body.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 8
Correct
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What could be a potential cause of metabolic acidosis?
Your Answer: Poorly controlled diabetes
Explanation:Acid-Base Imbalances in Different Medical Conditions
Poorly controlled diabetes can cause the breakdown of fatty acids, leading to the production of ketones as an alternative energy source. However, an excess of ketones can result in metabolic acidosis due to their acidic nature. On the other hand, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and suffocation can cause the retention of carbon dioxide, leading to respiratory acidosis. In COPD, there may be a compensatory metabolic alkalosis. Voluntary hyperventilation can cause respiratory alkalosis due to the reduction of carbon dioxide. Vomiting can also lead to metabolic alkalosis. Diabetic ketoacidosis is a complication of type 1 diabetes that results in high blood sugar levels, ketone production, and acidosis.
In summary, different medical conditions can cause acid-base imbalances in the body. It is important to identify the underlying cause of the imbalance to provide appropriate treatment.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 9
Correct
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Which statement regarding microtubules is accurate in relation to Chediak-Higashi syndrome?
Your Answer: They are arranged in a 9+2 formation in cilia
Explanation:Microtubules and Chediak-Higashi Syndrome
Microtubules are structures composed of alpha and beta tubulin dimers that are arranged in a helix and can be added or removed to vary the length. They are found in flagella, mitotic spindles, and cilia, where they have a 9+2 arrangement. Chemotherapy agents, such as taxanes, target microtubules in breast cancer treatment.
Chediak-Higashi syndrome is an autosomal recessive condition that presents with albinism, bleeding and bruising due to platelet dysfunction, and susceptibility to infections due to abnormal neutrophils. The LYST gene is responsible for lysosomal trafficking proteins and is affected in this syndrome.
In summary, microtubules are important structures in various cellular processes and are targeted in cancer treatment. Chediak-Higashi syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that affects lysosomal trafficking proteins and presents with various symptoms.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 10
Incorrect
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What is the primary factor that increases the risk of thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency?
Your Answer: Vegetarians
Correct Answer: Chronic alcohol excess
Explanation:Thiamine: Its Roles, Sources, Deficiency States, and Manifestations
Thiamine is a vital nutrient that plays several roles in the body. It acts as a cofactor to enzymes involved in energy production, metabolism of branched chain amino acids, and regulation of nerve and muscle action potentials. It is found in many foods, including wheat, oats, and yeast-containing products. However, deficiency states can occur in chronic alcohol dependence, renal dialysis, and cultures that mainly consume white rice. The deficiency can manifest as ‘dry’ beriberi, which causes peripheral neuropathy, muscle weakness, fatigue, and reduced concentration, or ‘wet’ beriberi, which also involves heart failure and edema. In severe cases, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome can develop, which is an emergency requiring urgent IV replacement of thiamine. If left untreated, it can lead to irreversible amnesia, confabulation, and dementia. Therefore, all patients with alcohol-related admissions should be considered for Pabrinex, a B vitamin infusion.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 11
Incorrect
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What is the primary reason for malnutrition?
Your Answer: Inadequate intake of multiple minerals
Correct Answer: Inadequate intake of calories in any form
Explanation:Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to a state where the dietary intake is insufficient to maintain a healthy state and stable weight. It can be caused by over- or under-nutrition, but it is commonly used to describe under-nutrition. Malnutrition can be defined as a state of nutrition where a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein, and other nutrients causes measurable adverse effects on tissue, function, and clinical outcome. Protein malnutrition is the most severe form of malnutrition, causing significant mortality and clinical effects such as kwashiorkor. Carbohydrate malnutrition is less common as carbohydrate sources are widely grown and cheap. Fat malnutrition rarely results in problems if there is adequate dietary protein and carbohydrate. Deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins can result in various clinical effects. Body size can give some indication of nutritional status, but many obese patients may have nutritional deficiencies due to their faddy diets.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 12
Correct
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A 32-year-old snowboarder presents to the Emergency department complaining of pain and swelling around the first metacarpophalangeal joint (MCP joint) following a fall during practice.
Upon examination, there is significant swelling and bruising on the ulnar side of the joint.
What is the most probable injury that the patient has sustained?Your Answer: Ulnar collateral ligament
Explanation:Skier’s Thumb: A Common Injury in Winter Sports
Skier’s thumb, also known as gamekeeper’s thumb, is a common injury that occurs in winter sports. It is caused by damage or rupture of the ulnar collateral ligament, which is located at the base of the thumb. This injury can result in acute swelling and gross instability of the thumb. In severe cases where a complete tear of the ligament is suspected, an MRI may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis, and surgical repair may be required.
Once the acute swelling has subsided, treatment for skier’s thumb typically involves immobilization in a thumb spica. This is the standard therapy for cases of partial rupture.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 13
Incorrect
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A premature baby is born and the anaesthetists are struggling to ventilate the lungs because of insufficient surfactant. How does Laplace's law explain the force pushing inwards on the walls of the alveolus caused by surface tension between two static fluids, such as air and water in the alveolus?
Your Answer: Proportional to the fourth power of the radius of the alveolus
Correct Answer: Inversely proportional to the radius of the alveolus
Explanation:The Relationship between Alveolar Size and Surface Tension in Respiratory Physiology
In respiratory physiology, the alveolus is often represented as a perfect sphere to apply Laplace’s law. According to this law, there is an inverse relationship between the size of the alveolus and the surface tension. This means that smaller alveoli experience greater force than larger alveoli for a given surface tension, and they will collapse first. This phenomenon explains why, when two balloons are attached together by their ends, the smaller balloon will empty into the bigger balloon.
In the lungs, this same principle applies to lung units, causing atelectasis and collapse when surfactant is not present. Surfactant is a substance that reduces surface tension, making it easier to expand the alveoli and preventing smaller alveoli from collapsing. Therefore, surfactant plays a crucial role in maintaining the proper functioning of the lungs and preventing respiratory distress. the relationship between alveolar size and surface tension is essential in respiratory physiology and can help in the development of treatments for lung diseases.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 14
Correct
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What is the cause of the symptoms of weakness, dermatitis, diarrhoea and dementia in pellagra?
Your Answer: Deficiency of the vitamin niacin
Explanation:Niacin Deficiency and Other Genetic Diseases
Niacin, a vitamin present in two forms – nicotinamide and nicotinic acid, is found in a variety of plant and animal foodstuffs. However, in some cases, the form of the vitamin is not easily absorbed by the human body, leading to deficiency. This deficiency is common in areas where maize is the primary dietary carbohydrate. Additionally, niacin can be produced by the body from the amino acid tryptophan. Diseases that affect the availability of tryptophan, such as Hartnup disease and carcinoid syndrome, can also result in niacin deficiency.
Pellagra is a condition that arises from niacin deficiency. It initially presents with non-specific symptoms such as nausea, fatigue, and reduced appetite, followed by pigmented dermatitis in sun-exposed areas, gastrointestinal disturbance, mood disturbance, and dementia in severe cases.
Apart from niacin deficiency, genetic diseases affecting collagen synthesis, such as Ehlers Danlos, present with symptoms of fragile stretchy skin and joint hypermobility. Genetic diseases affecting haemoglobin, such as sickle cell anaemia, present with symptoms of pain, hepatosplenomegaly, shortness of breath, and anaemia. Deficiencies in B12 and folate can also lead to macrocytic anaemia, paresthesia, and lethargy.
In conclusion, the causes and symptoms of niacin deficiency and other genetic diseases is crucial for early diagnosis and effective treatment. A balanced diet and regular medical check-ups can help prevent and manage these conditions.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 15
Correct
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During which stage of the cell cycle does the replication of DNA occur?
Your Answer: S phase
Explanation:The Five Phases of the Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is a complex process that is divided into five main phases, each with its unique cellular events. The first phase is the G0 phase, which is a resting phase where the cell has stopped dividing and is out of the cell cycle. The second phase is the G1 phase, also known as interphase Gap 1, where cells increase in size, and a checkpoint control mechanism prepares the cell for DNA synthesis.
The third phase is the S phase, where DNA replication occurs. The fourth phase is the G2 phase, also known as Gap 2, which is a gap between DNA synthesis and the onset of mitosis. During this phase, the cell continues to grow until it is ready to enter mitosis. Finally, the fifth phase is the M phase, also known as mitosis, where cell growth stops, and the cell focuses its energy to divide into two daughter cells.
A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis, known as the metaphase checkpoint, ensures that the cell is prepared to complete division. the five phases of the cell cycle is crucial in how cells divide and grow.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 16
Correct
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What function does vitamin E serve in the body?
Your Answer: Antioxidant
Explanation:Vitamin E and its Functions
Several substances are classified as vitamin E, with alpha-tocopherol being the most common, accounting for 90% of human vitamin E. Alpha-tocopherol is composed of two carbon rings and a long saturated hydrocarbon chain, making it hydrophobic. It has an aromatic ring with an OH- group attached to it. Other substances with vitamin E activity include other tocopherols and tocotrienols, all of which act as antioxidants. Alpha-tocopherol is particularly important in cell membranes, preventing the peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids by free radicals. It also has other functions, such as regulating gene transcription, inhibiting clotting formation, reducing proliferation of vascular smooth muscle, and playing a role in immunity.
Despite claims that taking vitamin E can reduce the risk of heart disease, cancer, and enhance sexual performance, there is currently no strong evidence to support these claims.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 17
Correct
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The diabetes prevention program has been running for the last 5 years. At baseline, a well conducted study with a sample size of 500 showed that the prevalence of diabetes among adults aged 40 and above was 15%.
Five years later another survey (of 400 responders) showed that the prevalence of diabetes was 10%.
In the above example, which definition of prevalence is correct?Your Answer: Prevalence is the number of new and old smokers in a year
Explanation:Prevalence and Incidence in Smoking
Prevalence and incidence are two important concepts in the smoking habits of a population. Prevalence refers to the number of people who smoke at a particular time point, such as at the beginning or end of a study period. This is calculated by dividing the number of smokers by the total population.
On the other hand, incidence refers to the number of new cases of smoking at a particular time point. For example, this could be at the beginning of a study period for the whole year or at the 10th year. This is calculated by dividing the number of new smokers by the number of smoke-free individuals who are potentially at risk of taking up smoking.
prevalence and incidence is important in evaluating the effectiveness of smoking cessation programs and policies. By tracking changes in prevalence and incidence over time, researchers and policymakers can determine whether their efforts are making a difference in reducing smoking rates. Additionally, these concepts can help identify populations that are at higher risk of taking up smoking, allowing for targeted interventions to prevent smoking initiation.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 18
Correct
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What is the conversion of pyruvate before it enters the Krebs cycle?
Your Answer: Acetyl-CoA
Explanation:The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrion and involves the conversion of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate. This cycle produces six NADH, two FADH, and two ATP for each molecule of glucose. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA before entering the Krebs cycle, and water and carbon dioxide are end products. Acetic acid itself has no role in the cycle, but its acetyl group is used to form acetyl-CoA. Some anaerobic bacteria can convert sugars to acetic acid directly.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 19
Correct
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What type of molecule does haemoglobin belong to?
Your Answer: Quaternary protein structure
Explanation:The Structure and Functions of Proteins
Proteins are complex molecules that can vary in structure from single amino acids to large, folded molecules. Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds to form dipeptides and polypeptides. More complex molecules can also have disulphide bonds and ionic bonds. The primary structure of a protein is a simple amino acid chain, while the secondary structure is a specific shape such as a helix or pleated sheet. The tertiary structure is a more globular shape, arranged by ionic, hydrogen, and disulphide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. The quaternary structure is a complex protein containing several polypeptide chains held together by interactions.
Proteins have multiple roles within the human body, including as hormones, food substrates, enzymes, receptor molecules, muscles, cell membrane constituents, carrier molecules in blood, and determinants of oncotic/osmotic pressures. However, proteins can be easily damaged by denaturation, which is the loss of the specific three-dimensional shape of a molecule. Denaturation can be caused by heat, salts, heavy metals, solvents, detergents, and extremes of pH.
In summary, proteins are essential molecules with a diverse range of structures and functions within the human body. their structure and potential for denaturation is crucial for maintaining their proper function.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 20
Correct
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A 29-year-old woman visits your clinic with concerns about a possible pregnancy.
Can you explain the mechanism behind a urinary pregnancy test?Your Answer: ELISA
Explanation:Techniques in Biochemistry
Over-the-counter urine pregnancy tests use ELISA to detect beta-HCG in a woman’s urine. The test stick contains antibodies that react with beta-HCG, producing a color change that confirms pregnancy. The urinary pregnancy test is a solid-phase ELISA, where the antibody is immobilized on a specialized filter paper. The fluid travels laterally across the paper to bind with the antibody, and if beta-HCG is present, the line turns blue. Electrophoresis characterizes the electrical charge and size of substances, while PCR identifies specific sequences of DNA or RNA. Radioimmunoassay uses radioactivity to identify specific proteins. Enzymatic degradation breaks down large proteins into smaller subunits for which target antibodies may already exist. This method is used to characterize large proteins for which the structure has not yet been described.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 21
Correct
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What is a good dietary source of vitamin A?
Your Answer: Liver
Explanation:The Importance of Vitamin A in Our Body
Vitamin A is an essential nutrient that can be found in various sources such as liver, fish liver oils, dark green leafy vegetables, carrots, and mangoes. It can also be added to certain foods like cereals and margarines. This nutrient plays a crucial role in our body as it is required for vision, growth and development of tissues, regulation of gene transcription, and synthesis of hydrophobic glycoproteins and parts of the protein kinase enzyme pathways.
One of the primary functions of vitamin A is to support our vision. It is a component of rhodopsin, a pigment that is necessary for the rod cells of the retina. Without vitamin A, our eyesight can be compromised, leading to various eye problems. Additionally, vitamin A is also essential for the growth and development of many types of tissues in our body. It helps in maintaining healthy skin, teeth, and bones.
Moreover, vitamin A is involved in regulating gene transcription, which is the process of converting DNA into RNA. This nutrient also plays a role in the synthesis of hydrophobic glycoproteins and parts of the protein kinase enzyme pathways. These processes are essential for the proper functioning of our body.
In conclusion, vitamin A is a vital nutrient that our body needs to function correctly. It is essential for our vision, growth and development of tissues, regulation of gene transcription, and synthesis of hydrophobic glycoproteins and parts of the protein kinase enzyme pathways. Therefore, it is crucial to include vitamin A-rich foods in our diet or take supplements if necessary.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 22
Correct
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A 65-year-old patient with suspected spinal cord compression has been admitted to the neurosurgical team for an urgent MRI of the spine. The MRI technique primarily relies on the magnetic properties of which particle?
Your Answer: Hydrogen ion (proton)
Explanation:How MRI Scanners Use Hydrogen Ions to Create Images
MRI scanners use the magnetic properties of hydrogen ions, also known as protons, to create images of the human body. These protons have nuclear spin, which means they have magnetic vectors that can be aligned in an electromagnet. The scanner bombards the protons with radiofrequency radiation, causing them to release energy when they return to their resting state. This energy release is recorded and used to construct the MRI image.
While other nuclei, such as carbon 13, also have net nuclear spin and could be used in MRI imaging, hydrogen ions are much more abundant in human tissues. This makes them the preferred choice for creating images of the body. By using the magnetic properties of hydrogen ions, MRI scanners can create detailed images of internal structures without the use of harmful radiation.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 23
Correct
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What are the clinical effects that can occur due to acute or chronic over-administration of multivitamins leading to Vitamin A toxicity?
Your Answer: Nausea, vomiting and headaches
Explanation:The Importance and Risks of Vitamin A
Vitamin A is an essential nutrient that plays a crucial role in various bodily functions such as growth and development, vision, enzyme signalling pathways, and the maintenance of epithelial membranes. However, excessive intake of vitamin A can lead to toxicity, which can cause several adverse effects. These include raised intracranial pressure resulting in headaches, nausea, vomiting, and visual loss, increased bone resorption leading to osteoporosis and hypercalcaemia, liver damage, hair loss, and skin changes. Moreover, there is a possible increased risk of malignancy, particularly among smokers. Pregnant women are also advised to avoid foods rich in vitamin A, such as liver and fish oils, due to the teratogenicity of vitamin A-derived drugs. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain a balanced intake of vitamin A to avoid the risks associated with its toxicity.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 24
Correct
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A couple in their late 20s comes to your clinic seeking advice regarding the possibility of their children inheriting cystic fibrosis. The husband has a confirmed diagnosis of the condition, but the carrier status of the wife is unknown.
What is the likelihood of any of their offspring being affected by cystic fibrosis?Your Answer: 2.50%
Explanation:Cystic Fibrosis Inheritance
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that affects the chloride ion channels, leading to the thickening of respiratory and other secretions. It is an autosomal recessive condition, which means that a person must inherit two copies of the defective gene, one from each parent, to develop the disease. The most common defective allele is carried by approximately 1 in 20 people.
If a man with CF has children with a woman who does not carry the recessive gene, then none of their children will be affected by the disease. However, they will all be carriers of the CF gene. On the other hand, if the woman is a carrier of the CF gene, there is a 50% chance that each child will inherit one copy of the defective gene from each parent and be affected by the disease. The remaining 50% of the children will inherit one copy of the defective gene and one normal gene, making them carriers of the CF gene but not affected by the disease.
In summary, the probability of any child being affected by CF is 2.5% if one parent has the defective gene and the other does not. It is important for individuals who are carriers of the CF gene to be aware of their status and seek genetic counseling before planning to have children.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 25
Incorrect
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As part of your general practice placement, you have been tasked with conducting an audit on the duration of solid food introduction in the practice population. You review the data for the last six infants born within the practice:
6 months, 7 months, 8 months, 9 months, 10 months, 11 months.
What is the variance value for the duration of solid food introduction in the practice population?Your Answer: 8.6
Correct Answer: 74.9
Explanation:Variance and Standard Deviation in Breast Feeding Duration
Variance is a statistical measure that indicates how spread out a set of data is. In the case of breast feeding duration, variance can help us understand how much the duration varies from the mean. The formula for variance involves squaring the difference between each data point and the mean, then dividing the sum by n-1, where n is the total number of data points. In a sample population, n-1 is a better estimate of variance than n because it accounts for the variability within the sample.
For example, if the variance of breast feeding duration is 74.9 months, this indicates that the duration is widely distributed from the mean of 17.6 months. A smaller variance, such as 4.5 months, would indicate that the duration varies less and is closer to the mean. The standard deviation, which is the square root of the variance, is also important in the spread of data. In a normal distribution, 95% of observations will fall within two standard deviations of the mean.
In the case of breast feeding duration, the mean is 17.6 months, indicating that babies are breast fed for an average of 15 and a half months. The median, which is the middle number in the data set, is 15 months, meaning that half of the babies were breast fed for 15 months. variance and standard deviation can help us better understand the distribution of breast feeding duration and other medical measurements.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 26
Correct
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A couple in their early 30s come to your clinic seeking advice. The husband has a history of haemophilia B and they are worried about the possibility of passing it on to their children. Can you determine which of their offspring will be affected by the disease?
Your Answer: All daughters will be carriers; no sons will be affected
Explanation:The inheritance of Haemophilia A and B is crucial in identifying individuals who are at risk of developing the condition. Haemophilia A and B are genetic disorders that are inherited in an X-linked recessive manner. Haemophilia A is caused by a deficiency in clotting factor VIII, while haemophilia B is caused by a deficiency in clotting factor IX.
On the other hand, haemophilia C, which is caused by a deficiency in clotting factor XI, is primarily inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. In X-linked recessive conditions like haemophilia B, males are more likely to be affected than females. This is because males only need one abnormal copy of the gene, which is carried on the X chromosome, to be affected.
Females, on the other hand, can be carriers of the condition if they carry one normal and one abnormal copy of the gene. While carriers can have clotting abnormalities, these are usually milder than those seen in affected individuals. Men cannot pass the condition to their sons, but they will pass on the abnormal X chromosome to all their daughters, who will be carriers.
Female carriers can pass on the condition to around half their sons, and half their daughters will be carriers. Females can only be affected if they are the offspring of an affected male and a carrier female. In summary, the inheritance of haemophilia A and B is crucial in identifying individuals who are at risk of developing the condition. It also helps in providing appropriate genetic counseling and management for affected individuals and their families.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 27
Correct
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What controls the specific stages of the cell cycle?
Your Answer: Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases
Explanation:Regulation of the Cell Cycle by Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
The cell cycle is controlled by the activity of proteins known as cyclins and phosphorylating enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Cyclins and CDKs combine to form an activated heterodimer, where cyclins act as the regulatory subunits and CDKs act as the catalytic subunits. Neither of these molecules is active on their own. When a cyclin binds to a CDK, the CDK phosphorylates other target proteins, either activating or deactivating them. This coordination leads to the entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. The specific proteins that are activated depend on the different combinations of cyclin-CDK. Additionally, CDKs are always present in cells, while cyclins are produced at specific points in the cell cycle in response to other signaling pathways.
In summary, the cell cycle is regulated by the interaction between cyclins and CDKs. This interaction leads to the phosphorylation of target proteins, which ultimately controls the progression of the cell cycle.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 28
Incorrect
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What occurs in eukaryotic prometaphase?
Your Answer: The chromosomes align across a plane
Correct Answer: The nuclear membrane and the nucleoli disintegrate and kinetochores appear
Explanation:The Significance of Prometaphase in Cell Division
Prometaphase is a crucial phase in cell division that marks the transition from prophase to metaphase. Although it is often considered as a part of these two phases, it has distinct events that make it an individual phase. During prometaphase, the nuclear membrane disintegrates, and the nucleoli are no longer visible. Additionally, each chromosome forms two kinetochores near the centromere, which serve as attachment points for spindle fibers. These fibers connect to the opposite poles of the cell, forming travelling lines that will separate the sister chromatids during anaphase.
Prophase is characterized by chromatin condensation, while DNA and centrosome duplication occur during interphase. Chromosome alignment takes place during metaphase, and the sister chromatids separate during anaphase. Prometaphase, therefore, plays a crucial role in preparing the chromosomes for separation during anaphase. Its distinct events make it an essential phase in cell division, and its proper execution is necessary for successful cell division.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 29
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You are evaluating a geriatric patient in the emergency department who has fallen and needs a venous cannula for fluid resuscitation. To ensure maximum flow into the vein, you plan to apply the Hagen-Poiseuille equation to select an appropriate cannula size. Which of the following statements is true according to this law?
Your Answer: Flow will be faster through a shorter cannula
Explanation:Poiseuille’s Equation and Fluid Flow in Cylinders
Poiseuille’s equation is used to describe the flow of non-pulsatile laminar fluids through a cylinder. The equation states that the flow rate is directly proportional to the pressure driving the fluid and the fourth power of the radius. Additionally, it is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid and the length of the tube. This means that a short, wide cannula with pressure on the bag will deliver fluids more rapidly than a long, narrow one.
It is important to note that even small changes in the radius of a tube can greatly affect the flow rate. This is because the fourth power of the radius is used in the equation. Therefore, any changes in the radius will have a significant impact on the flow rate. Poiseuille’s equation is crucial in determining the optimal conditions for fluid delivery in medical settings.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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Question 30
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Which process occurs mainly in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Your Answer: Steroid synthesis
Explanation:The Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum and Lysosomes
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a complex network of membranes that is divided into two types: rough and smooth. The rough ER is characterized by the presence of ribosomes on its cytosolic side, which makes it an important site for protein production, modification, and transport. On the other hand, the smooth ER is involved in cholesterol and steroid handling, as well as calcium storage in some cells. This type of ER is particularly prominent in cells that produce large amounts of steroid hormones, such as those found in the adrenal cortex.
Lysosomes, on the other hand, are organelles that are responsible for breaking down and recycling cellular waste. They are formed by the Golgi apparatus, which is another complex network of membranes found in eukaryotic cells. Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes that are capable of breaking down different types of molecules, including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
In summary, the ER and lysosomes are two important organelles in eukaryotic cells that play different roles in cellular metabolism. While the ER is involved in protein production, modification, and transport, the lysosomes are responsible for breaking down and recycling cellular waste.
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This question is part of the following fields:
- Basic Sciences
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