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  • Question 1 - A child complains of becoming clumsy since they had a head injury. You...

    Incorrect

    • A child complains of becoming clumsy since they had a head injury. You notice they are unable to control fine movements. A neurological exam does not reveal any motor of sensory deficit. Which type of apraxia is present?

      Your Answer: Ideomotor

      Correct Answer: Limb kinetic

      Explanation:

      Apraxia: Understanding the Inability to Carry Out Learned Voluntary Movements

      Apraxia is a neurological condition that affects a person’s ability to carry out learned voluntary movements. It is important to note that this condition assumes that everything works and the person is not paralyzed. There are different types of apraxia, each with its own set of symptoms and characteristics.

      Limb kinetic apraxia is a type of apraxia that affects a person’s ability to make fine of delicate movements. This can include tasks such as buttoning a shirt of tying shoelaces.

      Ideomotor apraxia, on the other hand, is an inability to carry out learned tasks when given the necessary objects. For example, a person with ideomotor apraxia may try to write with a hairbrush instead of using it to brush their hair.

      Constructional apraxia affects a person’s ability to copy a picture of combine parts of something to form a whole. This can include tasks such as building a puzzle of drawing a picture.

      Ideational apraxia is an inability to follow a sequence of actions in the correct order. For example, a person with ideational apraxia may struggle to take a match out of a box and strike it with their left hand.

      Finally, oculomotor apraxia affects a person’s ability to control eye movements. This can make it difficult for them to track moving objects of read smoothly.

      Overall, apraxia can have a significant impact on a person’s ability to carry out everyday tasks. However, with the right support and treatment, many people with apraxia are able to improve their abilities and maintain their independence.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      17.6
      Seconds
  • Question 2 - Which nuclei in the hypothalamus are responsible for the production and release of...

    Correct

    • Which nuclei in the hypothalamus are responsible for the production and release of dopamine that is transported to the pituitary gland through the infundibulum?

      Your Answer: Arcuate

      Explanation:

      Functions of the Hypothalamus

      The hypothalamus is a vital part of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions. It receives and integrates sensory information about the internal environment and directs actions to control internal homeostasis. The hypothalamus contains several nuclei and fiber tracts, each with specific functions.

      The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is responsible for regulating circadian rhythms. Neurons in the SCN have an intrinsic rhythm of discharge activity and receive input from the retina. The SCN is considered the body’s master clock, but it has multiple connections with other hypothalamic nuclei.

      Body temperature control is mainly under the control of the preoptic, anterior, and posterior nuclei, which have temperature-sensitive neurons. As the temperature goes above 37ºC, warm-sensitive neurons are activated, triggering parasympathetic activity to promote heat loss. As the temperature goes below 37ºC, cold-sensitive neurons are activated, triggering sympathetic activity to promote conservation of heat.

      The hypothalamus also plays a role in regulating prolactin secretion. Dopamine is tonically secreted by dopaminergic neurons that project from the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus into the anterior pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular pathway. The dopamine that is released acts on lactotrophic cells through D2-receptors, inhibiting prolactin synthesis. In the absence of pregnancy of lactation, prolactin is constitutively inhibited by dopamine. Dopamine antagonists result in hyperprolactinemia, while dopamine agonists inhibit prolactin secretion.

      In summary, the hypothalamus is a complex structure that regulates various bodily functions, including circadian rhythms, body temperature, and prolactin secretion. Dysfunction of the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders, such as sleep-rhythm disorder, diabetes insipidus, hyperprolactinemia, and obesity.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      16.2
      Seconds
  • Question 3 - Which type of dementia is characterized by the presence of clumps of aggregated...

    Correct

    • Which type of dementia is characterized by the presence of clumps of aggregated alpha synuclein in the cell bodies and axons of neurons?

      Your Answer: Lewy body dementia

      Explanation:

      Alpha-synuclein is the main component of Lewy bodies, which are inclusion bodies found in the cytoplasm of neurons and appear eosinophilic.

      Lewy body dementia is a neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by both macroscopic and microscopic changes in the brain. Macroscopically, there is cerebral atrophy, but it is less marked than in Alzheimer’s disease, and the brain weight is usually in the normal range. There is also pallor of the substantia nigra and the locus coeruleus, which are regions of the brain that produce dopamine and norepinephrine, respectively.

      Microscopically, Lewy body dementia is characterized by the presence of intracellular protein accumulations called Lewy bodies. The major component of a Lewy body is alpha synuclein, and as they grow, they start to draw in other proteins such as ubiquitin. Lewy bodies are also found in Alzheimer’s disease, but they tend to be in the amygdala. They can also be found in healthy individuals, although it has been suggested that these may be pre-clinical cases of dementia with Lewy bodies. Lewy bodies are also found in other neurodegenerative disorders such as progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, and multiple system atrophy.

      In Lewy body dementia, Lewy bodies are mainly found within the brainstem, but they are also found in non-brainstem regions such as the amygdaloid nucleus, parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate cortex, and cerebral neocortex. Classic brainstem Lewy bodies are spherical intraneuronal cytoplasmic inclusions, characterized by hyaline eosinophilic cores, concentric lamellar bands, narrow pale halos, and immunoreactivity for alpha synuclein and ubiquitin. In contrast, cortical Lewy bodies typically lack a halo.

      Most brains with Lewy body dementia also show some plaques and tangles, although in most instances, the lesions are not nearly as severe as in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuronal loss and gliosis are usually restricted to brainstem regions, particularly the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      3.8
      Seconds
  • Question 4 - The primary role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei is to regulate control over which...

    Correct

    • The primary role of the suprachiasmatic nuclei is to regulate control over which of the following?

      Your Answer: Circadian rhythms

      Explanation:

      Functions of the Hypothalamus

      The hypothalamus is a vital part of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions. It receives and integrates sensory information about the internal environment and directs actions to control internal homeostasis. The hypothalamus contains several nuclei and fiber tracts, each with specific functions.

      The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is responsible for regulating circadian rhythms. Neurons in the SCN have an intrinsic rhythm of discharge activity and receive input from the retina. The SCN is considered the body’s master clock, but it has multiple connections with other hypothalamic nuclei.

      Body temperature control is mainly under the control of the preoptic, anterior, and posterior nuclei, which have temperature-sensitive neurons. As the temperature goes above 37ºC, warm-sensitive neurons are activated, triggering parasympathetic activity to promote heat loss. As the temperature goes below 37ºC, cold-sensitive neurons are activated, triggering sympathetic activity to promote conservation of heat.

      The hypothalamus also plays a role in regulating prolactin secretion. Dopamine is tonically secreted by dopaminergic neurons that project from the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus into the anterior pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular pathway. The dopamine that is released acts on lactotrophic cells through D2-receptors, inhibiting prolactin synthesis. In the absence of pregnancy of lactation, prolactin is constitutively inhibited by dopamine. Dopamine antagonists result in hyperprolactinemia, while dopamine agonists inhibit prolactin secretion.

      In summary, the hypothalamus is a complex structure that regulates various bodily functions, including circadian rhythms, body temperature, and prolactin secretion. Dysfunction of the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders, such as sleep-rhythm disorder, diabetes insipidus, hyperprolactinemia, and obesity.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      3.7
      Seconds
  • Question 5 - What structure's reduced asymmetry has been linked to schizophrenia? ...

    Correct

    • What structure's reduced asymmetry has been linked to schizophrenia?

      Your Answer: Planum temporale

      Explanation:

      Schizophrenia is a pathology that is characterized by a number of structural and functional brain alterations. Structural alterations include enlargement of the ventricles, reductions in total brain and gray matter volume, and regional reductions in the amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, and temporal lobes. Antipsychotic treatment may be associated with gray matter loss over time, and even drug-naïve patients show volume reductions. Cerebral asymmetry is also reduced in affected individuals and healthy relatives. Functional alterations include diminished activation of frontal regions during cognitive tasks and increased activation of temporal regions during hallucinations. These findings suggest that schizophrenia is associated with both macroscopic and functional changes in the brain.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      5.5
      Seconds
  • Question 6 - What neuroimaging result is typically seen in individuals diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder?...

    Incorrect

    • What neuroimaging result is typically seen in individuals diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder?

      Your Answer: Hypometabolism of orbitofrontal area

      Correct Answer: Hypermetabolism of orbitofrontal area

      Explanation:

      This question is a common one, but it is worded in various ways each time.

      Neuroimaging Findings in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

      Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Neuroimaging studies have been conducted to investigate the underlying neural mechanisms of OCD. Two commonly used techniques are 18 Fluorodeoxyglucose PET (FDG-PET) and Technetium-99m (99mTc)-hexamethylpropyleneamine-oxime SPECT (HMPAO-SPECT).

      Studies using FDG-PET have reported increased glucose metabolism in several brain regions among OCD patients, including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), caudate, thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate. These regions are involved in cognitive and emotional processing, decision-making, and motor control. The increased activity in these regions may contribute to the symptoms of OCD, such as repetitive behaviors and difficulty controlling intrusive thoughts.

      On the other hand, studies using HMPAO-SPECT have found both increased and decreased blood flow to various brain regions in OCD patients compared to normal controls. These regions include the OFC, caudate, various areas of the cortex, and thalamus. The inconsistent findings may be due to differences in the severity and subtype of OCD, as well as the specific task of stimulus used in the imaging studies.

      Overall, neuroimaging studies have provided valuable insights into the neural mechanisms of OCD. However, further research is needed to better understand the complex interactions between different brain regions and how they contribute to the development and maintenance of OCD symptoms.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      8.4
      Seconds
  • Question 7 - What is a true statement about metabotropic receptors? ...

    Correct

    • What is a true statement about metabotropic receptors?

      Your Answer: Their effects tend to be more diffuse than those of ionotropic receptors

      Explanation:

      Neurotransmitters are substances used by neurons to communicate with each other and with target tissues. They are synthesized and released from nerve endings into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptor proteins in the cellular membrane of the target tissue. Neurotransmitters can be classified into different types, including small molecules (such as acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and GABA) and large molecules (such as neuropeptides). They can also be classified as excitatory or inhibitory. Receptors can be ionotropic or metabotropic, and the effects of neurotransmitters can be fast of slow. Some important neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Each neurotransmitter has a specific synthesis, breakdown, and receptor type. Understanding neurotransmitters is important for understanding the function of the nervous system and for developing treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      11.6
      Seconds
  • Question 8 - The sella turcica is a saddle-shaped depression in which bone that houses the...

    Correct

    • The sella turcica is a saddle-shaped depression in which bone that houses the pituitary gland?

      Your Answer: Sphenoid

      Explanation:

      The sphenoid bone contains a saddle-shaped depression known as the sella turcica. The anterior cranial fossa is formed by the frontal, ethmoid, and a portion of the sphenoid bones. The middle cranial fossa is formed by the sphenoid and temporal bones, while the posterior cranial fossa is formed by the occipital and temporal bones.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      13
      Seconds
  • Question 9 - What is a true statement about the cingulate gyrus? ...

    Correct

    • What is a true statement about the cingulate gyrus?

      Your Answer: It is involved in reward-based decision making

      Explanation:

      The fusiform gyrus is essential for recognizing faces and bodies, while damage to the angular gyrus can result in Gerstmann syndrome.

      The Cingulate Gyrus: A Hub for Emotions and Decision Making

      The cingulate gyrus is a cortical fold located on the medial aspect of the cerebral hemisphere, adjacent to the corpus callosum. As part of the limbic system, it plays a crucial role in processing emotions and regulating the body’s endocrine and autonomic responses to emotional stimuli. Additionally, it is involved in reward-based decision making. Essentially, the cingulate gyrus acts as a hub that connects emotions, sensations, and actions. The term cingulate comes from the Latin word for belt of girdle, which reflects the way in which it wraps around the corpus callosum.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      16.9
      Seconds
  • Question 10 - In the basal ganglia, what structures make up the lenticular nucleus, including the...

    Correct

    • In the basal ganglia, what structures make up the lenticular nucleus, including the globus pallidus and which other component?

      Your Answer: Putamen

      Explanation:

      Located in the epithalamus at the center of the brain, the pineal gland is an endocrine gland. The basal ganglia, also known as basal nuclei, consist of four primary components: the caudate, nucleus accumbens, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra. The lenticular (of lentiform) nucleus is formed by the globus pallidus and putamen.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      8.4
      Seconds
  • Question 11 - What is the association with theta rhythms? ...

    Correct

    • What is the association with theta rhythms?

      Your Answer: Seen in meditative practice

      Explanation:

      Electroencephalography

      Electroencephalography (EEG) is a clinical test that records the brain’s spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time using multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. It is mainly used to rule out organic conditions and can help differentiate dementia from other disorders such as metabolic encephalopathies, CJD, herpes encephalitis, and non-convulsive status epilepticus. EEG can also distinguish possible psychotic episodes and acute confusional states from non-convulsive status epilepticus.

      Not all abnormal EEGs represent an underlying condition, and psychotropic medications can affect EEG findings. EEG abnormalities can also be triggered purposely by activation procedures such as hyperventilation, photic stimulation, certain drugs, and sleep deprivation.

      Specific waveforms are seen in an EEG, including delta, theta, alpha, sigma, beta, and gamma waves. Delta waves are found frontally in adults and posteriorly in children during slow wave sleep, and excessive amounts when awake may indicate pathology. Theta waves are generally seen in young children, drowsy and sleeping adults, and during meditation. Alpha waves are seen posteriorly when relaxed and when the eyes are closed, and are also seen in meditation. Sigma waves are bursts of oscillatory activity that occur in stage 2 sleep. Beta waves are seen frontally when busy of concentrating, and gamma waves are seen in advanced/very experienced meditators.

      Certain conditions are associated with specific EEG changes, such as nonspecific slowing in early CJD, low voltage EEG in Huntington’s, diffuse slowing in encephalopathy, and reduced alpha and beta with increased delta and theta in Alzheimer’s.

      Common epileptiform patterns include spikes, spike/sharp waves, and spike-waves. Medications can have important effects on EEG findings, with clozapine decreasing alpha and increasing delta and theta, lithium increasing all waveforms, lamotrigine decreasing all waveforms, and valproate having inconclusive effects on delta and theta and increasing beta.

      Overall, EEG is a useful tool in clinical contexts for ruling out organic conditions and differentiating between various disorders.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      24.6
      Seconds
  • Question 12 - What percentage of individuals with Autism exhibit the following condition? ...

    Incorrect

    • What percentage of individuals with Autism exhibit the following condition?

      Your Answer: Language impairment

      Correct Answer: Macrocephaly

      Explanation:

      Autism and Macrocephaly: A Common Neurobiological Finding

      Macrocephaly, of an abnormally large head circumference, is a common occurrence in individuals with idiopathic autism, with approximately 20% of individuals with autism exhibiting this trait (Fombonne, 1999). This finding has been replicated in numerous studies and is considered one of the most consistent neurobiological findings in autism. However, it is important to note that macrocephaly is typically not present at birth but rather develops during childhood.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      15.8
      Seconds
  • Question 13 - In which condition is focal slowing observed in the left temporal region on...

    Incorrect

    • In which condition is focal slowing observed in the left temporal region on electroencephalography?

      Your Answer: CJD

      Correct Answer: Normal aging

      Explanation:

      Electroencephalography

      Electroencephalography (EEG) is a clinical test that records the brain’s spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time using multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. It is mainly used to rule out organic conditions and can help differentiate dementia from other disorders such as metabolic encephalopathies, CJD, herpes encephalitis, and non-convulsive status epilepticus. EEG can also distinguish possible psychotic episodes and acute confusional states from non-convulsive status epilepticus.

      Not all abnormal EEGs represent an underlying condition, and psychotropic medications can affect EEG findings. EEG abnormalities can also be triggered purposely by activation procedures such as hyperventilation, photic stimulation, certain drugs, and sleep deprivation.

      Specific waveforms are seen in an EEG, including delta, theta, alpha, sigma, beta, and gamma waves. Delta waves are found frontally in adults and posteriorly in children during slow wave sleep, and excessive amounts when awake may indicate pathology. Theta waves are generally seen in young children, drowsy and sleeping adults, and during meditation. Alpha waves are seen posteriorly when relaxed and when the eyes are closed, and are also seen in meditation. Sigma waves are bursts of oscillatory activity that occur in stage 2 sleep. Beta waves are seen frontally when busy of concentrating, and gamma waves are seen in advanced/very experienced meditators.

      Certain conditions are associated with specific EEG changes, such as nonspecific slowing in early CJD, low voltage EEG in Huntington’s, diffuse slowing in encephalopathy, and reduced alpha and beta with increased delta and theta in Alzheimer’s.

      Common epileptiform patterns include spikes, spike/sharp waves, and spike-waves. Medications can have important effects on EEG findings, with clozapine decreasing alpha and increasing delta and theta, lithium increasing all waveforms, lamotrigine decreasing all waveforms, and valproate having inconclusive effects on delta and theta and increasing beta.

      Overall, EEG is a useful tool in clinical contexts for ruling out organic conditions and differentiating between various disorders.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      17.7
      Seconds
  • Question 14 - Which area of the brain can be damaged to cause expressive dysphasia? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which area of the brain can be damaged to cause expressive dysphasia?

      Your Answer: Temporal lobe

      Correct Answer: Frontal lobe

      Explanation:

      Broca’s and Wernicke’s are two types of expressive dysphasia, which is characterized by difficulty producing speech despite intact comprehension. Dysarthria is a type of expressive dysphasia caused by damage to the speech production apparatus, while Broca’s aphasia is caused by damage to the area of the brain responsible for speech production, specifically Broca’s area located in Brodmann areas 44 and 45. On the other hand, Wernicke’s aphasia is a type of receptive of fluent aphasia caused by damage to the comprehension of speech, while the actual production of speech remains normal. Wernicke’s area is located in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant hemisphere, within Brodmann area 22.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      8.7
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  • Question 15 - A 60-year-old patient complains of headaches which are worse in the morning and...

    Incorrect

    • A 60-year-old patient complains of headaches which are worse in the morning and have been present for 2 months. They have been told by their GP it is probably 'tension headache'. Which of the following symptoms is suggestive of a more sinister pathology?

      Your Answer: Painful band around the head

      Correct Answer: Pain worse on bending down

      Explanation:

      Indicators of a potentially serious headache are:

      – Developing a headache for the first time after the age of 50
      – Sudden and severe headache (often described as a thunderclap headache)
      – Accompanying symptoms such as redness in the eye and seeing halos around lights
      – Headache that gets worse with physical activity of straining (such as during a Valsalva maneuver)

      Cerebral Tumours

      The most common brain tumours in adults, listed in order of frequency, are metastatic tumours, glioblastoma multiforme, anaplastic astrocytoma, and meningioma. On the other hand, the most common brain tumours in children, listed in order of frequency, are astrocytoma, medulloblastoma, and ependymoma.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      15.6
      Seconds
  • Question 16 - Which cranial nerve reflex is most likely to be impacted by a vagus...

    Correct

    • Which cranial nerve reflex is most likely to be impacted by a vagus nerve lesion?

      Your Answer: Gag

      Explanation:

      Cranial Nerve Reflexes

      When it comes to questions on cranial nerve reflexes, it is important to match the reflex to the nerves involved. Here are some examples:

      – Pupillary light reflex: involves the optic nerve (sensory) and oculomotor nerve (motor).
      – Accommodation reflex: involves the optic nerve (sensory) and oculomotor nerve (motor).
      – Jaw jerk: involves the trigeminal nerve (sensory and motor).
      – Corneal reflex: involves the trigeminal nerve (sensory) and facial nerve (motor).
      – Vestibulo-ocular reflex: involves the vestibulocochlear nerve (sensory) and oculomotor, trochlear, and abducent nerves (motor).

      Another example of a cranial nerve reflex is the gag reflex, which involves the glossopharyngeal nerve (sensory) and the vagus nerve (motor). This reflex is important for protecting the airway from foreign objects of substances that may trigger a gag reflex. It is also used as a diagnostic tool to assess the function of these nerves.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      6.3
      Seconds
  • Question 17 - Through which opening in the skull does the cranial nerve exit that is...

    Incorrect

    • Through which opening in the skull does the cranial nerve exit that is known as the superior orbital fissure?

      Your Answer: Olfactory nerve (I)

      Correct Answer: Abducens (VI)

      Explanation:

      Overview of Cranial Nerves and Their Functions

      The cranial nerves are a complex system of nerves that originate from the brain and control various functions of the head and neck. There are twelve cranial nerves, each with a specific function and origin. The following table provides a simplified overview of the cranial nerves, including their origin, skull exit, modality, and functions.

      The first cranial nerve, the olfactory nerve, originates from the telencephalon and exits through the cribriform plate. It is a sensory nerve that controls the sense of smell. The second cranial nerve, the optic nerve, originates from the diencephalon and exits through the optic foramen. It is a sensory nerve that controls vision.

      The third cranial nerve, the oculomotor nerve, originates from the midbrain and exits through the superior orbital fissure. It is a motor nerve that controls eye movement, pupillary constriction, and lens accommodation. The fourth cranial nerve, the trochlear nerve, also originates from the midbrain and exits through the superior orbital fissure. It is a motor nerve that controls eye movement.

      The fifth cranial nerve, the trigeminal nerve, originates from the pons and exits through different foramina depending on the division. It is a mixed nerve that controls chewing and sensation of the anterior 2/3 of the scalp. It also tenses the tympanic membrane to dampen loud noises.

      The sixth cranial nerve, the abducens nerve, originates from the pons and exits through the superior orbital fissure. It is a motor nerve that controls eye movement. The seventh cranial nerve, the facial nerve, also originates from the pons and exits through the internal auditory canal. It is a mixed nerve that controls facial expression, taste of the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, and tension on the stapes to dampen loud noises.

      The eighth cranial nerve, the vestibulocochlear nerve, originates from the pons and exits through the internal auditory canal. It is a sensory nerve that controls hearing. The ninth cranial nerve, the glossopharyngeal nerve, originates from the medulla and exits through the jugular foramen. It is a mixed nerve that controls taste of the posterior 1/3 of the tongue, elevation of the larynx and pharynx, and swallowing.

      The tenth cranial nerve, the vagus nerve, also originates from the medulla and exits through the jugular foramen. It is a mixed nerve that controls swallowing, voice production, and parasympathetic supply to nearly all thoracic and abdominal viscera. The eleventh cranial nerve, the accessory nerve, originates from the medulla and exits through the jugular foramen. It is a motor nerve that controls shoulder shrugging and head turning.

      The twelfth cranial nerve, the hypoglossal nerve, originates from the medulla and exits through the hypoglossal canal. It is a motor nerve that controls tongue movement. Overall, the cranial nerves play a crucial role in controlling various functions of the head and neck, and any damage of dysfunction can have significant consequences.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      23.4
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  • Question 18 - Which of the following is another term for a neuropathic gait? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which of the following is another term for a neuropathic gait?

      Your Answer: Scissor gait

      Correct Answer: Equine gait

      Explanation:

      Gait disorders can be caused by a variety of conditions, including neurological, muscular, and structural abnormalities. One common gait disorder is hemiplegic gait, which is characterized by unilateral weakness on the affected side, with the arm flexed, adducted, and internally rotated, and the leg on the same side in extension with plantar flexion of the foot and toes. When walking, the patient may hold their arm to one side and drag their affected leg in a semicircle (circumduction) due to weakness of leg flexors and extended foot. Hemiplegic gait is often seen in patients who have suffered a stroke.

      Other gait disorders include ataxic gait, spastic gait, and steppage gait, each with their own unique characteristics and associated conditions. Accurate diagnosis and treatment of gait disorders is important for improving mobility and quality of life for affected individuals.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      23.1
      Seconds
  • Question 19 - What is a true statement about myelination? ...

    Incorrect

    • What is a true statement about myelination?

      Your Answer: Myelin is composed mainly of protein

      Correct Answer: Myelin is produced by glial cells

      Explanation:

      Myelination: The Insulation of Neurons

      Myelin is a fatty material that insulates the axon of a neuron, allowing messages to be sent quickly and without interference. Glial cells, such as oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, produce myelin in the central and peripheral nervous systems, respectively. Myelination begins in the developing foetus and continues through childhood and adolescence into early adulthood, with the frontal lobes being the last area to myelinate. Myelinated axons appear white, hence the term ‘white matter’ of the brain. Myelination progresses from central to peripheral, caudal to rostral, and dorsal to ventral, with sensory myelination preceding motor myelination.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      18.4
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  • Question 20 - A 70-year-old patient presents with gait instability, urinary incontinence, and memory impairment. What...

    Correct

    • A 70-year-old patient presents with gait instability, urinary incontinence, and memory impairment. What is the most likely diagnosis?

      Your Answer: Normal pressure hydrocephalus

      Explanation:

      Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus

      Normal pressure hydrocephalus is a type of chronic communicating hydrocephalus, which occurs due to the impaired reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by the arachnoid villi. Although the CSF pressure is typically high, it remains within the normal range, and therefore, it does not cause symptoms of high intracranial pressure (ICP) such as headache and nausea. Instead, patients with normal pressure hydrocephalus usually present with a classic triad of symptoms, including incontinence, gait ataxia, and dementia, which is often referred to as wet, wobbly, and wacky. Unfortunately, this condition is often misdiagnosed as Parkinson’s of Alzheimer’s disease.

      The classic triad of normal pressure hydrocephalus, also known as Hakim’s triad, includes gait instability, urinary incontinence, and dementia. On the other hand, non-communicating hydrocephalus results from the obstruction of CSF flow in the third of fourth ventricle, which causes symptoms of raised intracranial pressure, such as headache, vomiting, hypertension, bradycardia, altered consciousness, and papilledema.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      12.2
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  • Question 21 - Which area of the central nervous system is indicated by a positive outcome...

    Correct

    • Which area of the central nervous system is indicated by a positive outcome in the finger-to-nose test?

      Your Answer: Cerebellum

      Explanation:

      The finger-nose test requires the patient to touch their nose and then the examiner’s finger consecutively. If the patient is unable to perform this task, it indicates motor dysmetria, which is a lack of coordination and may indicate a cerebellar injury.

      Cerebellar Dysfunction: Symptoms and Signs

      Cerebellar dysfunction is a condition that affects the cerebellum, a part of the brain responsible for coordinating movement and balance. The symptoms and signs of cerebellar dysfunction include ataxia, intention tremor, nystagmus, broad-based gait, slurred speech, dysdiadochokinesis, and dysmetria (lack of finger-nose coordination).

      Ataxia refers to the lack of coordination of voluntary movements, resulting in unsteady gait, difficulty with balance, and clumsiness. Intention tremor is a type of tremor that occurs during voluntary movements, such as reaching for an object. Nystagmus is an involuntary movement of the eyes, characterized by rapid, jerky movements.

      Broad-based gait refers to a wide stance while walking, which is often seen in individuals with cerebellar dysfunction. Slurred speech, also known as dysarthria, is a common symptom of cerebellar dysfunction, which affects the ability to articulate words clearly. Dysdiadochokinesis is the inability to perform rapid alternating movements, such as tapping the fingers on the palm of the hand.

      Dysmetria refers to the inability to accurately judge the distance and direction of movements, resulting in errors in reaching for objects of touching the nose with the finger. These symptoms and signs of cerebellar dysfunction can be caused by a variety of conditions, including stroke, multiple sclerosis, and alcoholism. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, physical therapy, and surgery.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      3.8
      Seconds
  • Question 22 - What type of apraxia is indicated when a patient is given a pencil...

    Incorrect

    • What type of apraxia is indicated when a patient is given a pencil during a neurological examination and they attempt to use it to brush their teeth after looking at it for a minute?

      Your Answer: Ideational

      Correct Answer: Ideomotor

      Explanation:

      The inability to carry out complex instructions is referred to as Ideational Apraxia, while the inability to perform previously learned actions with the appropriate tools is known as Ideomotor Apraxia.

      Apraxia: Understanding the Inability to Carry Out Learned Voluntary Movements

      Apraxia is a neurological condition that affects a person’s ability to carry out learned voluntary movements. It is important to note that this condition assumes that everything works and the person is not paralyzed. There are different types of apraxia, each with its own set of symptoms and characteristics.

      Limb kinetic apraxia is a type of apraxia that affects a person’s ability to make fine of delicate movements. This can include tasks such as buttoning a shirt of tying shoelaces.

      Ideomotor apraxia, on the other hand, is an inability to carry out learned tasks when given the necessary objects. For example, a person with ideomotor apraxia may try to write with a hairbrush instead of using it to brush their hair.

      Constructional apraxia affects a person’s ability to copy a picture of combine parts of something to form a whole. This can include tasks such as building a puzzle of drawing a picture.

      Ideational apraxia is an inability to follow a sequence of actions in the correct order. For example, a person with ideational apraxia may struggle to take a match out of a box and strike it with their left hand.

      Finally, oculomotor apraxia affects a person’s ability to control eye movements. This can make it difficult for them to track moving objects of read smoothly.

      Overall, apraxia can have a significant impact on a person’s ability to carry out everyday tasks. However, with the right support and treatment, many people with apraxia are able to improve their abilities and maintain their independence.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      8.8
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  • Question 23 - Which neuroimaging technique that maps cortical activation uses the non-invasive BOLD method? ...

    Correct

    • Which neuroimaging technique that maps cortical activation uses the non-invasive BOLD method?

      Your Answer: Functional MRI (fMRI)

      Explanation:

      The BOLD technique is used by fMRI to non-invasively map cortical activation, while PET and SPECT require the administration of a radioactive isotope and are invasive. Although all three magnetic imaging techniques are non-invasive, fMRI stands out for its use of the BOLD technique.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      10
      Seconds
  • Question 24 - Which language assessment is considered a neuropsychological test? ...

    Incorrect

    • Which language assessment is considered a neuropsychological test?

      Your Answer: Verbal fluency

      Correct Answer: Token test

      Explanation:

      The neuropsychological assessment includes the token test, which is a language test that uses various tokens, such as differently coloured rectangles and circular discs. The subject is given verbal instructions of increasing complexity to perform tasks with these tokens, and it is a sensitive measure of language comprehension impairment, particularly in cases of aphasia. Additionally, there are several tests of executive function that assess frontal lobe function, including the Stroop test, Tower of London test, Wisconsin card sorting test, Cognitive estimates test, Six elements test, Multiple errands task, and Trails making test.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      10.7
      Seconds
  • Question 25 - Which of the following is a catecholamine? ...

    Correct

    • Which of the following is a catecholamine?

      Your Answer: Adrenaline

      Explanation:

      Catecholamines are a group of chemical compounds that have a distinct structure consisting of a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups, an intermediate ethyl chain, and a terminal amine group. These compounds play an important role in the body and are involved in various physiological processes. The three main catecholamines found in the body are dopamine, adrenaline, and noradrenaline. All of these compounds are derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Overall, catecholamines are essential for maintaining proper bodily functions and are involved in a wide range of physiological processes.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      6.1
      Seconds
  • Question 26 - What is a true statement about the planum temporale? ...

    Incorrect

    • What is a true statement about the planum temporale?

      Your Answer: It is bordered anteriorly by the Sylvian fissure

      Correct Answer: It consists of secondary auditory cortex

      Explanation:

      Cerebral Asymmetry in Planum Temporale and its Implications in Language and Auditory Processing

      The planum temporale, a triangular region in the posterior superior temporal gyrus, is a highly lateralized brain structure involved in language and music processing. Studies have shown that the planum temporale is up to ten times larger in the left cerebral hemisphere than the right, with this asymmetry being more prominent in men. This asymmetry can be observed in gestation and is present in up to 70% of right-handed individuals.

      Recent research suggests that the planum temporale also plays an important role in auditory processing, specifically in representing the location of sounds in space. However, reduced planum temporale asymmetry has been observed in individuals with dyslexia, stuttering, and schizophrenia. These findings highlight the importance of cerebral asymmetry in the planum temporale and its implications in language and auditory processing.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      21.2
      Seconds
  • Question 27 - What is the main structural component of alpha-synuclein? ...

    Correct

    • What is the main structural component of alpha-synuclein?

      Your Answer: Lewy bodies

      Explanation:

      Parkinson’s Disease Pathology

      Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects the central nervous system. The pathology of Parkinson’s disease is very similar to that of Lewy body dementia. The macroscopic features of Parkinson’s disease include pallor of the substantia nigra (midbrain) and locus coeruleus (pons). The microscopic changes include the presence of Lewy bodies, which are intracellular aggregates of alpha-synuclein. Additionally, there is a loss of dopaminergic cells from the substantia nigra pars compacta. These changes contribute to the motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. Understanding the pathology of Parkinson’s disease is crucial for developing effective treatments and improving the quality of life for those affected by this condition.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      4.8
      Seconds
  • Question 28 - A 40-year-old individual who has been struggling with opioid addiction is experiencing symptoms...

    Incorrect

    • A 40-year-old individual who has been struggling with opioid addiction is experiencing symptoms of opioid dependence. What electroencephalographic alterations are commonly observed in cases of opioid dependence?

      Your Answer: None of the above

      Correct Answer: Decreased alpha activity

      Explanation:

      Opioid dependence is characterized by a decrease in alpha activity on electroencephalography (EEG). Other drugs have distinct EEG changes, such as increased beta activity with benzodiazepines, decreased alpha activity and increased theta activity with alcohol, and increased beta activity with barbiturates. Marijuana use is associated with increased alpha activity in the frontal area of the brain and overall slow alpha activity. During opioid overdose, slow waves may be observed on EEG, while barbiturate withdrawal may result in generalized paroxysmal activity and spike discharges.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      17.9
      Seconds
  • Question 29 - Which feature is not associated with Gerstmann's syndrome? ...

    Correct

    • Which feature is not associated with Gerstmann's syndrome?

      Your Answer: Anosognosia

      Explanation:

      Non-dominant parietal lobe dysfunction is indicated by the presence of anosognosia.

      Parietal Lobe Dysfunction: Types and Symptoms

      The parietal lobe is a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in processing sensory information and integrating it with other cognitive functions. Dysfunction in this area can lead to various symptoms, depending on the location and extent of the damage.

      Dominant parietal lobe dysfunction, often caused by a stroke, can result in Gerstmann’s syndrome, which includes finger agnosia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, and right-left disorientation. Non-dominant parietal lobe dysfunction, on the other hand, can cause anosognosia, dressing apraxia, spatial neglect, and constructional apraxia.

      Bilateral damage to the parieto-occipital lobes, a rare condition, can lead to Balint’s syndrome, which is characterized by oculomotor apraxia, optic ataxia, and simultanagnosia. These symptoms can affect a person’s ability to shift gaze, interact with objects, and perceive multiple objects at once.

      In summary, parietal lobe dysfunction can manifest in various ways, and understanding the specific symptoms can help diagnose and treat the underlying condition.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      5.4
      Seconds
  • Question 30 - Which area of the brain is most likely to be damaged in order...

    Correct

    • Which area of the brain is most likely to be damaged in order to result in prosopagnosia?

      Your Answer: Fusiform gyrus

      Explanation:

      Understanding Prosopagnosia: The Inability to Recognize Faces

      Prosopagnosia, also known as face blindness, is a condition where individuals are unable to recognize faces. This complex process involves various areas of the brain, with the fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe being the most significant. The inability to recognize faces can be caused by damage to this area of the brain of can be a result of a developmental disorder.

      The condition can be challenging for individuals as it can affect their ability to recognize familiar faces, including family members and friends. It can also impact their social interactions and make it difficult to navigate social situations. While there is no cure for prosopagnosia, individuals can learn to use other cues such as voice, clothing, and context to recognize people.

      Understanding prosopagnosia is crucial in providing support and accommodations for individuals who experience this condition. It is essential to raise awareness and promote research to develop effective interventions to help individuals with face blindness.

    • This question is part of the following fields:

      • Neurosciences
      4.5
      Seconds

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